{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T17:59:21Z","timestamp":1791223161250,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791158400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009061","name":"Thai Health Promotion Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["000705\/64"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["000705\/64"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009061","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Respirable dust (RD) exposure represents a significant occupational health concern in stone processing settings, particularly among stone carvers who are at elevated risk due to high levels of dust generation. Prolonged exposure to RD is associated with serious adverse health outcomes, including lung cancer. This study aimed to evaluate the probabilistic risk associated with RD exposure using Monte Carlo simulation and to estimate the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) among stone carvers. A cross-sectional study was conducted across five occupational categories: mining, cutting, splitting, knocking, and stone carving. Personal air sampling was performed in accordance with the NIOSH 7601 method to determine time-weighted average (TWA) RD concentrations. ILCR was estimated using Monte Carlo simulation with 10,000 iterations, incorporating exposure parameters and health risk assessment models based on U.S. EPA guidelines. The mean RD concentrations did not exceed either the Thai occupational exposure limit (OEL) or the threshold limit value (TLV) in any of the five occupational categories, with the highest level observed among stone carvers (0.051 mg\/m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    ). Although ILCR values for all groups were within the acceptable threshold of 1.00\u2009\u00d7\u200910\u2009\n                    <jats:sup>\u22126<\/jats:sup>\n                    , the highest mean ILCR was identified in the stone carving group (3.325\u2009\u00d7\u200910\u2009\n                    <jats:sup>\u22127<\/jats:sup>\n                    ). These findings suggest that, despite being within acceptable limits, workers may still face potential health risks from RD exposure. The results underscore the need for strengthened regulatory enforcement and comprehensive control strategies, including engineering controls, respiratory protection, and targeted health education, to mitigate exposure and prevent silica-related diseases in this high-risk population.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0359706","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T17:37:57Z","timestamp":1791221877000},"page":"e0359706","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Probabilistic health risk assessment of respirable dust exposure among stone carvers in Thailand using average daily dose and Monte Carlo simulation"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4418-2278","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Arroon","family":"Ketsakorn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Thammasat University","place":["Pathum Thani, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ratchapong","family":"Chaiyadej","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Public Health, Thammasat University","place":["Pathum Thani, Thailand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"pone.0359706.ref001","volume-title":"Murray & Nadel\u2019s textbook of respiratory medicine","author":"VC Broaddus","year":"2022","edition":"7"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref002","author":"World Health Organization","year":"1999"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref003","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2004"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref004","author":"International Labour Organization","year":"2002"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref005","volume-title":"Occupational exposure limits for chemical substances","author":"Department of Labour Protection and Welfare","year":"2017"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref006","author":"Ministry of Public Health","year":"2022"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0359706.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.59096\/osir.v14i2.262643","article-title":"A scoping review on occupational exposure of silica and asbestos among industrial workers in Thailand","volume":"14","author":"W Kunpeuk","year":"2021","journal-title":"OSIR"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0359706.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2024.2398009","article-title":"Development of rapid prediction model for silicosis risk among stone carvers in Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand","volume":"21","author":"R Chaiyadej","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Hyg"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2018.02.007","article-title":"Impact of exposure factor selection on deterministic consumer exposure assessment","volume":"94","author":"H Ban","year":"2018","journal-title":"Regul Toxicol Pharmacol"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ress.2020.106807","article-title":"A Monte Carlo framework for probabilistic analysis and variance decomposition with distribution parameter uncertainty","volume":"197","author":"J McFarland","year":"2020","journal-title":"Reliab Eng Syst Saf"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref011","author":"United States Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2016"},{"issue":"6","key":"pone.0359706.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055001","DOI":"10.1088\/1681-7575\/aba5aa","article-title":"Consistency in Monte Carlo uncertainty analyses","volume":"57","author":"BF Jamroz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Metrologia"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.strusafe.2025.102617","article-title":"Optimizing uncertainty estimation in enhanced Monte Carlo methods","volume":"116","author":"KN Anyfantis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Struct Saf"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref014","author":"United States Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2005"},{"issue":"11","key":"pone.0359706.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases13110372","article-title":"Silicosis and pulmonary functions among residents exposed to dust in Saraburi Thailand","volume":"13","author":"N Saiphoklang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Diseases"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0359706.ref016","first-page":"598","article-title":"Prevalence of silicosis in stone carving workers being exposed to inorganic dust at Sikhiu District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand: Preliminary results","volume":"100","author":"K Silanun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Med Assoc Thai"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0359706.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0284974","article-title":"Geochemistry and provenance of Mesozoic sandstones in Khon Kaen Geopark: Implication for tectonics of the western Khorat Plateau of Thailand","volume":"18","author":"V Singtuen","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref018","unstructured":"Subdistrict Health Promotion Hospital Thailand. Number of informal workers in Sikhio District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand 2019 [Internet]. 2019 [cited 2022 Oct 10]. Available from: http:\/\/110.164.44.57:2286\/pmh_report2\/index.php"},{"issue":"3","key":"pone.0359706.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1177\/001316447003000308","article-title":"Determining sample size for research activities","volume":"30","author":"RV Krejcie","year":"1970","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Meas"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0359706.ref020","first-page":"598","article-title":"Prevalence of silicosis in stone carving workers being exposed to inorganic dust at Sikhiu District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand: Preliminary results","volume":"100","author":"K Silanun","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Med Assoc Thai"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref021","author":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)","year":"2003","edition":"4"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref022","author":"United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref023","first-page":"104","article-title":"Comparative cancer potency for silica from extrapolations of human and animal findings","volume":"21","author":"DF Goldsmith","year":"1995","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref024","author":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2011"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0359706.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s12995-026-00496-7","article-title":"Web application development using multiple regression analysis to predict silicosis risk among stone carvers in Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand","volume":"21","author":"A Ketsakorn","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Occup Med Toxicol"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0359706.ref026","first-page":"44","article-title":"Determinants of respirable crystalline silica exposure among sand-stone workers","volume":"6","author":"K Chanvirat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Public Health Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0359706.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10533","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-37731-8","article-title":"A Monte Carlo algorithm to improve the measurement efficiency of low-field nuclear magnetic resonance","volume":"13","author":"P Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s10836-025-06202-5","article-title":"Enhanced Monte Carlo-based uncertainty quantification in electronic circuits","volume":"41","author":"MI Dieste-Velasco","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Electron Test"},{"key":"pone.0359706.ref029","author":"United States Environmental Protection Agency.","year":"1989"},{"issue":"5","key":"pone.0359706.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1080\/10807039.2012.707931","article-title":"Exposure to crystalline silica inhalation among construction workers: A probabilistic risk analysis","volume":"18","author":"M Yeheyis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum Ecol Risk Assess"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0359706.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6190","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-37121-w","article-title":"Probabilistic risk assessment of occupational exposure to respirable crystalline silica among ceramic workers in an industrial town in Iran: A Monte Carlo simulation approach","volume":"16","author":"S Saeedizadeh","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0359706.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-8307-7","article-title":"A probabilistic approach for economic evaluation of occupational health and safety interventions: A case study of silica exposure reduction interventions in the construction sector","volume":"20","author":"A Mofidi","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"}],"container-title":["PLOS One"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0359706","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T17:38:02Z","timestamp":1791221882000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0359706"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Benedetto","family":"Schiavo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Autonomous University of Mexico Institute of Geophysics: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Instituto de Geofisica","place":["MEXICO"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0359706","relation":{},"ISSN":["1932-6203"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1932-6203","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]}}}