{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T18:37:18Z","timestamp":1792780638547,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792713600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plosone.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS One"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Participation equity is essential for ensuring that students gain cognitive and social benefits from collaborative learning, yet there is a lack of quantitative benchmarks for interpreting participation and opportunity distributions in small-group collaboration. This study focuses on two turn-based analytical dimensions of participation equity: participation equality, measured by students\u2019 shares of speaking turns, and opportunity equality, measured by students\u2019 shares of addressed opportunities. Using the standard deviation of these rates, the study establishes preliminary, context-specific simulation-based reference values for identifying departures from an idealized triadic turn-taking baseline. The empirical dataset included 117 fourth-grade primary school students from two classes in mainland China, who worked in heterogeneous triads on mathematical and reading tasks. Using agent-based modeling and Monte Carlo simulation, the study estimated local turn-taking parameters from empirical data, generated reference distributions under an ideal-equity baseline, and conducted sensitivity analyses to examine model stability. Results support the internal stability of the model and provide turn-count-specific reference values for interpreting participation and opportunity inequality. The findings offer preliminary reference values for interpreting participation and opportunity distributions in collaborative learning and highlight the importance of turn count when evaluating structural patterns of participation and opportunity in triadic classroom dialogue. These reference values describe structural participation patterns rather than collaboration quality and require recalibration and independent validation before application in other educational settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0361205","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T17:37:31Z","timestamp":1792777051000},"page":"e0361205","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["How unequal is unequal? Turn-taking simulation for benchmarking participation and opportunity inequality in small-group collaboration"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4496-7024","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Liru","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Texas at El Paso","place":["El Paso, Texas, United States of America"],"department":["College of Education"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiajun","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong, China"],"department":["Faculty of Education"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1913-2882","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Feng","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Texas at El Paso","place":["El Paso, Texas, United States of America"],"department":["Department of Mathematical Sciences"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6488-0234","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Deliang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong, China"],"department":["Faculty of Education"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Song","family":"An","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Texas at El Paso","place":["El Paso, Texas, United States of America"],"department":["College of Education"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7754-5506","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ying","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Education University of Hong Kong","place":["Hong Kong, China"],"department":["Department of Mathematics and Information Technology"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0361205.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1111\/jcal.12975","article-title":"Improving participation equity in dialogic collaborative problem solving: A participatory visual learning analytical approach","volume":"40","author":"L Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Computer Assisted Learning"},{"key":"pone.0361205.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2013.02.001","article-title":"Engaging with others\u2019 mathematical ideas: Interrelationships among student participation, teachers\u2019 instructional practices, and learning","volume":"63","author":"NM Webb","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Research"},{"key":"pone.0361205.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lcsi.2023.100702","article-title":"Coding schemes and analytic indicators for dialogic teaching: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"39","author":"Y Tao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Learning, Culture and Social Interaction"},{"key":"pone.0361205.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429441677-3","article-title":"Towards a dialogic theory of education for the Internet Age","volume-title":"The Routledge International Handbook of Research on Dialogic Education","author":"R Wegerif","year":"2019"},{"key":"pone.0361205.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lcsi.2016.01.002","article-title":"Student agency to participate in dialogic science discussions","volume":"10","author":"SN Clarke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Learning, Culture and Social Interaction"},{"issue":"2","key":"pone.0361205.ref006","first-page":"51","article-title":"Using visualization to motivate student participation in collaborative online learning environments","volume":"20","author":"SH Jin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Educational Technology & Society"},{"key":"pone.0361205.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2016.11.003","article-title":"The silent and the vocal: Participation and learning in whole-class discussion","volume":"48","author":"C O\u2019Connor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"issue":"4","key":"pone.0361205.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1080\/07370008.2019.1631825","article-title":"Amplifying and Attenuating Inequity in Collaborative Learning: Toward an Analytical Framework","volume":"37","author":"N Shah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognition and Instruction"},{"issue":"1","key":"pone.0361205.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s11412-021-09340-y","article-title":"Promoting regulation of equal participation in online collaboration by combining a group awareness tool and adaptive prompts. 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