{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T14:09:40Z","timestamp":1791468580968,"version":"4.3.4"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,7]],"date-time":"2021-01-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1609977600000}}],"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]],"date-time":"2020-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1608681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institute of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["TMI 138658"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TMI 138658"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["TMI 138658"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TMI 138658"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institute of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["154042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["154042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011094","name":"Public Health Agency of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011094","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"CIHR and the Manitoba Health Research Council"},{"name":"CIHR New Investigator Award"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plospathogens.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Pathog"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alterations to the mucosal environment of the female genital tract, such as genital inflammation, have been associated with increased HIV acquisition in women. As the microbiome and hormonal contraceptives can affect vaginal mucosal immunity, we hypothesized these components may interact in the context of HIV susceptibility. Using previously published microbiome data from 685 women in the CAPRISA-004 trial, we compared relative risk of HIV acquisition in this cohort who were using injectable depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), norethisterone enanthate (NET-EN), and combined oral contraceptives (COC). In women who were<jats:italic>Lactobacillus-<\/jats:italic>dominant, HIV acquisition was 3-fold higher in women using DMPA relative to women using NET-EN or COC (OR: 3.27; 95% CI: 1.24\u201311.24,<jats:italic>P =<\/jats:italic>0.0305). This was not observed in non-<jats:italic>Lactobacillus-<\/jats:italic>dominant women (OR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.44\u20132.15,<jats:italic>P =<\/jats:italic>0.895) (interaction<jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>= 0.0686). Higher serum MPA levels associated with increased molecular pathways of inflammation in the vaginal mucosal fluid of<jats:italic>Lactobacillus<\/jats:italic>-dominant women, but no differences were seen in non-<jats:italic>Lactobacillus<\/jats:italic>dominant women. This study provides data suggesting an interaction between the microbiome, hormonal contraceptives, and HIV susceptibility.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]],"date-time":"2020-12-23T19:50:37Z","timestamp":1608753037000},"page":"e1009097","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Vaginal microbiome-hormonal contraceptive interactions associate with the mucosal proteome and HIV acquisition"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Laura","family":"No\u00ebl-Romas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7881-2867","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Michelle","family":"Perner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5915-9858","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Refilwe","family":"Molatlhegi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Farr Zuend","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8504-4779","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Amanda","family":"Mabhula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Hoger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0431-7825","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alana","family":"Lamont","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7503-020X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kenzie","family":"Birse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2210-0577","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alicia","family":"Berard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"McCorrister","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Garett","family":"Westmacott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2538-6467","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Al","family":"Leslie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0526-3902","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Vanessa","family":"Poliquin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6039-0352","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Renee","family":"Heffron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7157-0700","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lyle R.","family":"McKinnon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam D.","family":"Burgener","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref001","article-title":"Genital inflammation and the risk of HIV acquisition in women","author":"L Masson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2012.7","article-title":"A distinct cytokine and chemokine profile at the genital mucosa is associated with HIV-1 protection among HIV-exposed seronegative commercial sex workers","volume":"5","author":"J Lajoie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"9","key":"ppat.1009097.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1005889","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005889","article-title":"Microbiome Composition and Function Drives Wound-Healing Impairment in the Female Genital Tract","volume":"12","author":"AS Zevin","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"issue":"2","key":"ppat.1009097.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1113\/JP271694","article-title":"The vaginal microbiota, host defence and reproductive physiology","volume":"595","author":"SB Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Physiol"},{"issue":"18","key":"ppat.1009097.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa043802","article-title":"Molecular identification of bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis","volume":"353","author":"DN Fredricks","year":"2005","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4680","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002611107","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women","volume":"108","author":"J Ravel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e32834ed7f0","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis, HIV serostatus and T-cell subset distribution in a cohort of East African commercial sex workers: retrospective analysis","volume":"26","author":"JJ Schellenberg","year":"2012","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"issue":"6","key":"ppat.1009097.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37818","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0037818","article-title":"Bacterial communities in women with bacterial vaginosis: high resolution phylogenetic analyses reveal relationships of microbiota to clinical criteria","volume":"7","author":"S Srinivasan","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"5","key":"ppat.1009097.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2015.04.019","article-title":"Cervicovaginal bacteria are a major modulator of host inflammatory responses in the female genital tract","volume":"42","author":"MN Anahtar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"issue":"8","key":"ppat.1009097.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12078","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012078","article-title":"Deep sequencing of the vaginal microbiota of women with HIV","volume":"5","author":"R Hummelen","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref011","article-title":"Lactobacillus-dominated cervicovaginal microbiota associated with reduced HIV\/STI prevalence and genital HIV viral load in African women","author":"H Borgdorff","year":"2014","journal-title":"The ISME journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"ppat.1009097.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2013.05.006","article-title":"The global epidemiology of bacterial vaginosis: a systematic review","volume":"209","author":"C Kenyon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2016.12.013","article-title":"Lactobacillus-Deficient Cervicovaginal Bacterial Communities Are Associated with Increased HIV Acquisition in Young South African Women","volume":"46","author":"C Gosmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"issue":"5","key":"ppat.1009097.ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30058-6","article-title":"Evaluation of the association between the concentrations of key vaginal bacteria and the increased risk of HIV acquisition in African women from five cohorts: a nested case-control study","volume":"18","author":"RS McClelland","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2012.0271","article-title":"Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate increases immune cell numbers and activation markers in human vaginal mucosal tissues","volume":"29","author":"N Chandra","year":"2013","journal-title":"AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2018.0188","article-title":"Increased Cervical CD4(+)CCR5(+) T Cells Among Kenyan Sex Working Women Using Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate","volume":"35","author":"J Lajoie","year":"2019","journal-title":"AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses"},{"issue":"5","key":"ppat.1009097.ref017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1270","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2016.121","article-title":"Effects of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate on the immune microenvironment of the human cervix and endometrium: implications for HIV susceptibility","volume":"10","author":"KK Smith-McCune","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1186\/s12958-019-0469-8","article-title":"Effects of three long-acting reversible contraceptive methods on HIV target cells in the human uterine cervix and peripheral blood","volume":"17","author":"L Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reprod Biol Endocrinol"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.12415","article-title":"Injectable Progestin-Only Contraception is Associated With Increased Levels of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in the Female Genital Tract","volume":"74","author":"J Deese","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Reprod Immunol"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0143109","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0143109","article-title":"Immune Activation in the Female Genital Tract: Expression Profiles of Soluble Proteins in Women at High Risk for HIV Infection","volume":"11","author":"SC Francis","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jri.2015.03.007","article-title":"Lower concentrations of chemotactic cytokines and soluble innate factors in the lower female genital tract associated with the use of injectable hormonal contraceptive","volume":"110","author":"S Ngcapu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Reprod Immunol"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000000866","article-title":"Changes in Vaginal Microbiota and Immune Mediators in HIV-1-Seronegative Kenyan Women Initiating Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate","volume":"71","author":"AC Roxby","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"issue":"9","key":"ppat.1009097.ref023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1005885","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005885","article-title":"Increases in Endogenous or Exogenous Progestins Promote Virus-Target Cell Interactions within the Non-human Primate Female Reproductive Tract","volume":"12","author":"AM Carias","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"issue":"6","key":"ppat.1009097.ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2016.22","article-title":"Medroxyprogesterone acetate and levonorgestrel increase genital mucosal permeability and enhance susceptibility to genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infection","volume":"9","author":"NE Quispe Calla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13029","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.13029","article-title":"Progestin-based contraception regimens modulate expression of putative HIV risk factors in the vaginal epithelium of pig-tailed Macaques","volume":"80","author":"SE Bosinger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am J Reprod Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref026","first-page":"431","article-title":"Depomedroxyprogesterone-induced hypoestrogenism and changes in vaginal flora and epithelium","volume":"96","author":"L Miller","year":"2000","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"issue":"2","key":"ppat.1009097.ref027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.contraception.2014.01.024","article-title":"Human vaginal histology in long-term users of the injectable contraceptive depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate","volume":"90","author":"MV Bahamondes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Contraception"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-7824(99)00058-X","article-title":"The effect of one injection of Depo-Provera on the human vaginal epithelium and cervical ectopy","volume":"60","author":"CK Mauck","year":"1999","journal-title":"Contraception"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref029","first-page":"590","article-title":"Genital Injury Signatures and Microbiome Alterations Associated With Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate Usage and Intravaginal Drying Practices","volume":"215","author":"KD Birse","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"issue":"10","key":"ppat.1009097.ref030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4622","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI120583","article-title":"Use of contraceptive depot medroxyprogesterone acetate is associated with impaired cervicovaginal mucosal integrity","volume":"128","author":"IA Zalenskaya","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"issue":"17","key":"ppat.1009097.ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001228","article-title":"An updated systematic review of epidemiological evidence on hormonal contraceptive methods and HIV acquisition in women","volume":"30","author":"CB Polis","year":"2016","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001778","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001778","article-title":"Hormonal contraception and the risk of HIV acquisition: an individual participant data meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"CS Morrison","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjsrh-2019-200509","article-title":"Hormonal contraception and HIV acquisition among women: an updated systematic review","volume":"46","author":"KM Curtis","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Sex Reprod Health"},{"issue":"10195","key":"ppat.1009097.ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)31288-7","article-title":"Consortium HIVOT. HIV incidence among women using intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, a copper intrauterine device, or a levonorgestrel implant for contraception: a randomised, multicentre, open-label trial","volume":"394","author":"O Evidence for Contraceptive","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"5","key":"ppat.1009097.ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001741","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis modifies the association between hormonal contraception and HIV acquisition","volume":"32","author":"LB Haddad","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"issue":"6341","key":"ppat.1009097.ref036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"938","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aai9383","article-title":"Vaginal bacteria modify HIV tenofovir microbicide efficacy in African women","volume":"356","author":"NR Klatt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0000000000000245","article-title":"The impact of hormonal contraception and pregnancy on sexually transmitted infections and on cervicovaginal microbiota in african sex workers","volume":"42","author":"H Borgdorff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12977","DOI":"10.1111\/aji.12977","article-title":"Understanding mucosal and microbial functionality of the female reproductive tract by metaproteomics: Implications for HIV transmission","author":"AR Berard","year":"2018","journal-title":"American journal of reproductive immunology"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0b013e31822be512","article-title":"Contraceptive choices, pregnancy rates, and outcomes in a microbicide trial","volume":"118","author":"S Sibeko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"issue":"5996","key":"ppat.1009097.ref040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1193748","article-title":"Effectiveness and safety of tenofovir gel, an antiretroviral microbicide, for the prevention of HIV infection in women","volume":"329","author":"Q Abdool Karim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod.114.122887","article-title":"Progesterone-based intrauterine device use is associated with a thinner apical layer of the human ectocervical epithelium and a lower ZO-1 mRNA expression","volume":"92","author":"A Tjernlund","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol Reprod"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)00429-6","article-title":"Association between injectable progestin-only contraceptives and HIV acquisition and HIV target cell frequency in the female genital tract in South African women: a prospective cohort study","volume":"16","author":"EH Byrne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu176","article-title":"Long-term effect of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate on vaginal microbiota, epithelial thickness and HIV target cells","volume":"210","author":"CM Mitchell","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref044","article-title":"A Longitudinal Assessment of Cervical Inflammation and Immunity Associated with HIV-1 Infection, Hormonal Contraception, and Pregnancy","author":"CS Morrison","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2012-1850","article-title":"Hormonal contraception and HIV-1 infection: medroxyprogesterone acetate suppresses innate and adaptive immune mechanisms","volume":"154","author":"RP Huijbregts","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000000533","article-title":"Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate Use Is Associated With Elevated Innate Immune Effector Molecules in Cervicovaginal Secretions of HIV-1-Uninfected Women","volume":"69","author":"BL Guthrie","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref047","author":"BR Jaspan H","year":"2019"},{"issue":"19","key":"ppat.1009097.ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10189","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02529-10","article-title":"HLA-DR+ CD38+ CD4+ T lymphocytes have elevated CCR5 expression and produce the majority of R5-tropic HIV-1 RNA in vivo","volume":"85","author":"AL Meditz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of virology"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2013.06.001","article-title":"Glucose availability is a decisive factor for Nrf2-mediated gene expression","volume":"1","author":"EH Heiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Redox Biol"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2016.10.002","article-title":"The synthetic progestin norgestrel modulates Nrf2 signaling and acts as an antioxidant in a model of retinal degeneration","volume":"10","author":"AM Byrne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Redox Biol"},{"issue":"10","key":"ppat.1009097.ref051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1242\/dmm.039669","article-title":"Medroxyprogesterone acetate alters the vaginal microbiota and microenvironment in women and increases susceptibility to HIV-1 in humanized mice","volume":"12","author":"JM Wessels","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dis Model Mech"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.26.1.216","article-title":"Effects of injectable or implantable progestin-only contraceptives on insulin-glucose metabolism and diabetes risk","volume":"26","author":"HS Kahn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00001","article-title":"Glucose metabolism regulates T cell activation, differentiation, and functions","volume":"6","author":"CS Palmer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"issue":"6","key":"ppat.1009097.ref054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.3109\/08830185.2015.1082178","article-title":"Regulators of Glucose Metabolism in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T Cells","volume":"35","author":"CS Palmer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int Rev Immunol"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2019.00028","article-title":"Glycolysis Induces MCJ Expression That Links T Cell Proliferation With Caspase-3 Activity and Death","volume":"7","author":"MA Secinaro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Cell Dev Biol"},{"issue":"9","key":"ppat.1009097.ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix088","article-title":"Distinct Effects of the Cervicovaginal Microbiota and Herpes Simplex Type 2 Infection on Female Genital Tract Immunology","volume":"215","author":"B Shannon","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"ppat.1009097.ref057","article-title":"Plasma concentration of injectable contraceptive correlates with reduced cervicovaginal growth factor expression in South African women","author":"RP Molatlhegi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol"},{"issue":"2","key":"ppat.1009097.ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2001.115862","article-title":"Hormonal contraception and risk of sexually transmitted disease acquisition: results from a prospective study","volume":"185","author":"JM Baeten","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"issue":"12","key":"ppat.1009097.ref059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0b013e31811ed0e4","article-title":"Longitudinal association between hormonal contraceptives and bacterial vaginosis in women of reproductive age","volume":"34","author":"M Riggs","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.contraception.2016.11.006","article-title":"Effects of combined oral contraceptives, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate and the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on the vaginal microbiome","volume":"95","author":"JP Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"Contraception"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0229586","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0229586","article-title":"Changes in key vaginal bacteria among postpartum African women initiating intramuscular depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate","volume":"15","author":"BM Whitney","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1009097.ref062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2018.1563458","article-title":"Differential effects of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate administration on vaginal microbiome in Hispanic White and Black women","volume":"8","author":"L Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg Microbes Infect"},{"issue":"6","key":"ppat.1009097.ref063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.contraception.2009.06.007","article-title":"Use of injectable progestin contraception and risk of STI among South African women","volume":"80","author":"A Pettifor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Contraception"},{"issue":"3","key":"ppat.1009097.ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1089\/aid.2018.0304","article-title":"The Evolving Facets of Bacterial Vaginosis: Implications for HIV Transmission","volume":"35","author":"LR McKinnon","year":"2019","journal-title":"AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses"},{"issue":"4","key":"ppat.1009097.ref065","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.contraception.2018.01.011","article-title":"Concordance of self-reported hormonal contraceptive use and presence of exogenous hormones in serum among African women","volume":"97","author":"M Pyra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Contraception"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,7]],"date-time":"2021-01-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1609977600000}}],"container-title":["PLOS Pathogens"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,18]],"date-time":"2021-04-18T05:37:41Z","timestamp":1618724261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dx.plos.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Guido","family":"Silvestri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097","relation":{"new_version":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009097","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1553-7374"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1553-7374","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]}}}