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Problematically, recoding typically hinders virus growth, but this may be rectified using CpG dinucleotide enrichment. CpGs are recognised by cellular zinc-finger antiviral protein (ZAP), and so in principle, removing ZAP sensing from a virus propagation system will reverse attenuation of a CpG-enriched virus, enabling high titre yield of a vaccine virus. We tested this using a vaccine strain of influenza A virus (IAV) engineered for increased CpG content in genome segment 1. Virus attenuation was mediated by the short isoform of ZAP, correlated with the number of CpGs added, and was enacted via turnover of viral transcripts. The CpG-enriched virus was strongly attenuated in mice, yet conveyed protection from a potentially lethal challenge dose of wildtype virus. Importantly for vaccine development, CpG-enriched viruses were genetically stable during serial passage. Unexpectedly, in both MDCK cells and embryonated hens\u2019 eggs that are used to propagate live attenuated influenza vaccines, the ZAP-sensitive virus was fully replication competent. Thus, ZAP-sensitive CpG enriched viruses that are defective in human systems can yield high titre in vaccine propagation systems, providing a realistic, economically viable platform to augment existing live attenuated vaccines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011357","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,5]],"date-time":"2023-05-05T13:39:40Z","timestamp":1683293980000},"page":"e1011357","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["CpG dinucleotide enrichment in the influenza A virus genome as a live attenuated vaccine development strategy"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Colin P.","family":"Sharp","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beth H.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tessa J.","family":"Nash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ola","family":"Diebold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rute M.","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luke","family":"Thorley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yao-Tang","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha","family":"Sives","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helen","family":"Wise","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Clohisey Hendry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Finn","family":"Grey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lonneke","family":"Vervelde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Simmonds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Digard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4473-6373","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Eleanor R.","family":"Gaunt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ppat.1011357.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-14-610","article-title":"Modelling mutational and selection pressures on dinucleotides in eukaryotic phyla\u2013selection against CpG and UpA in cytoplasmically expressed RNA and in RNA viruses","volume":"14","author":"P. 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