{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T14:52:21Z","timestamp":1790607141302,"version":"4.1.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011908","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,23]],"date-time":"2024-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1705968000000}}],"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000040","name":"Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["J-002305.001.07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["J-002305.001.07"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000040","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plospathogens.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Pathog"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Macroecological approaches can provide valuable insight into the epidemiology of globally distributed, multi-host pathogens. <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic> is a protozoan that infects any warm-blooded animal, including humans, in almost every habitat worldwide. <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic> infects its hosts through oocysts in the environment, carnivory of tissue cysts within intermediate host prey and vertical transmission. These routes of infection enable specific predictions regarding the ecological and life history traits that should predispose specific taxa to higher exposure and, thus infection rates of <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic>. Using <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> prevalence data compiled from 485 studies representing 533 free-ranging wild mammalian species, we examined how ecological (habitat type, trophic level) and life history (longevity, vagility, gestation duration and torpor) traits influence <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> infection globally. We also compared <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> prevalence between wild and domesticated species from the same taxonomic families using data compiled from 540 studies of domestic cattle, sheep, and pigs. Across free-ranging wildlife, we found the average <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> prevalence was 22%, which is comparable to the global human estimate. Among ecological guilds, terrestrial species had lower <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> prevalence than aquatic species, with freshwater aquatic taxa having an increased prevalence compared to marine aquatic species. Dietary niches were also influential, with carnivores having an increased risk compared to other trophic feeding groups that have reduced tissue cyst exposure in their diet. With respect to influential life history traits, we found that more vagile wildlife species had higher <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> infection rates, perhaps because of the higher cumulative risk of infection during movement through areas with varying <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> environmental loads. Domestic farmed species had a higher <jats:italic>T<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>gondii<\/jats:italic> prevalence compared to free-ranging confamilial wildlife species. Through a macroecological approach, we determined the relative significance of transmission routes of a generalist pathogen, demonstrating an increased infection risk for aquatic and carnivorous species and highlighting the importance of preventing pathogen pollution into aquatic environments. <jats:italic>Toxoplasma gondii<\/jats:italic> is increasingly understood to be primarily an anthropogenically-associated pathogen whose dissemination is enhanced by ecosystem degradation and human subsidisation of free-roaming domestic cats. Adopting an ecosystem restoration approach to reduce one of the world\u2019s most common parasites would synergistically contribute to other initiatives in conservation, feline and wildlife welfare, climate change, food security and public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011908","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]],"date-time":"2024-01-10T18:30:32Z","timestamp":1704911432000},"page":"e1011908","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["The role of species ecology in predicting Toxoplasma gondii prevalence in wild and domesticated mammals globally"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2789-0480","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Amy G.","family":"Wilson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David R.","family":"Lapen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer F.","family":"Provencher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-1795.2008.00228.x","article-title":"The role of infectious diseases in biological conservation","volume":"12","author":"KF Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anim Conserv"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2010.01742.x","article-title":"Wildlife diseases: from individuals to ecosystems","volume":"80","author":"DM Tompkins","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Anim Ecol"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2007.00776.x","article-title":"Infectious diseases and extinction risk in wild mammals","volume":"21","author":"AB Pedersen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Conserv Biol"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-019-01405-7","article-title":"The One Health approach to toxoplasmosis: Epidemiology, control, and prevention strategies.","volume":"16","author":"AA Aguirre","year":"2019","journal-title":"EcoHealth."},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003199373","volume-title":"Toxoplasmosis of animals and humans","author":"JP Dubey","year":"2021","edition":"3"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2017.10.021","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: A study of oocyst re-shedding in domestic cats","volume":"249","author":"DL Zulpo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet Parasitol"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1975.24.439","article-title":"Soil survival of Toxoplasma oocysts in Kansas and Costa Rica","volume":"24","author":"JK Frenkel","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-1919.1","article-title":"Long-term survival of Toxoplasma gondii sporulated oocysts in seawater","volume":"95","author":"DS Lindsay","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Parasitol"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2019.e00049","article-title":"Environmental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii: Oocysts in water, soil and food.","volume":"15","author":"K Shapiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1078035","article-title":"A recent expansion of Toxoplasma through enhanced oral transmission","volume":"299","author":"C Su","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00124-7","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: From animals to humans","volume":"30","author":"AM Tenter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Parasitol"},{"key":"ppat.1011908.ref012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e90203","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0090203","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis\u2014a global threat. 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