{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,5]],"date-time":"2026-11-05T16:38:39Z","timestamp":1793896719564,"version":"4.8.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1014620","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790726400000}}],"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Public Library of Science (PLoS)","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001537","name":"University of Auckland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FRDF (2023-2025)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRDF (2023-2025)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001537","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001537","name":"University of Auckland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UoA PhD Scholarship (2025\u20132028)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UoA PhD Scholarship (2025\u20132028)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001537","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.plospathogens.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["PLoS Pathog"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The protozoan parasite\n                    <jats:italic>Trichomonas vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                    , the causative agent of trichomoniasis, is frequently associated with dysbiotic vaginal microbial communities characteristic of bacterial vaginosis (BV). While previous studies have shown that vaginal bacteria can modulate parasite pathogenicity, the metabolic basis underlying this ecological association remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether\n                    <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                    and BV-associated bacteria (BVAB) engage in metabolic cooperation that could support their coexistence. Using in vitro co-culture systems, we examined microbial growth under defined nutrient conditions and integrated metabolomic profiling with targeted transcriptional analysis to characterize metabolic interactions between partners. In serum-free defined medium that does not support proliferation of either microorganism alone,\n                    <jats:italic>T. vaginalis<\/jats:italic>\n                    and BVAB exhibited mutualistic growth, indicating that they engage in cooperative metabolic interactions to overcome shared nutritional limitations. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed a coordinated metabolic shift toward amino acid catabolism during co-culture, with prominent accumulation of ornithine and putrescine linking the arginine dihydrolase (ADH) pathway to polyamine synthesis. Gene expression analyses showed strong upregulation of the parasite carbamate kinase gene during co-culture, implicating enhanced ADH pathway activity in this interaction. Inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis partially impaired the cooperative growth of both microorganisms, further supporting the importance of this metabolic axis. Together, these findings provide experimental evidence that cross-kingdom metabolic cooperation can reciprocally support infection and dysbiosis, highlighting how parasite-microbiome interactions can reshape metabolic networks to overcome environmental constraints and promote their persistence within host-associated microbial ecosystems.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1014620","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T17:46:40Z","timestamp":1790185600000},"page":"e1014620","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.ppat.corrections_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Metabolic cooperation supports mutual growth between the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis and dysbiotic vaginal bacteria"],"prefix":"10.1371","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Annabel S.","family":"Hinderfeld","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences","place":["Auckland, New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raphael","family":"Bang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences","place":["Auckland, New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bailey S.","family":"Dickson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences","place":["Auckland, New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saif","family":"Faraj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences","place":["Auckland, New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2461-1917","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Augusto","family":"Simoes-Barbosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences","place":["Auckland, New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"340","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"10","key":"ppat.1014620.ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0b013e3182631c79","article-title":"Association between Trichomonas vaginalis and vaginal bacterial community composition among reproductive-age women","volume":"39","author":"RM Brotman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sex Transm Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"ppat.1014620.ref002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-025-00626-1","article-title":"Bacterial vaginosis","volume":"11","author":"CS Bradshaw","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Rev Dis Primers"},{"issue":"8","key":"ppat.1014620.ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011563","article-title":"NlpC\/P60 peptidoglycan hydrolases of Trichomonas vaginalis have complementary activities that empower the protozoan to control host-protective lactobacilli","volume":"19","author":"MJ Barnett","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"ppat.1014620.ref004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-80682-8_12","article-title":"Trichomonas vaginalis: Lifestyle, Cellular Biology, and Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis","author":"AM Riestra","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiology Monographs"},{"key":"ppat.1014620.ref005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4680","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002611107","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women","author":"J Ravel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"ppat.1014620.ref006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01815","article-title":"Commentary: Lactobacilli dominance and vaginal pH: why is the human vaginal microbiome unique?","volume":"8","author":"V Fuochi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Microbiology"},{"key":"ppat.1014620.ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srinivasan S, Morgan MT, Fiedler TL, Djukovic D, Hoffman NG, Raftery D, et al. 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