{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T08:54:56Z","timestamp":1775638496288,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"12","content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. VLDB Endow."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In the past decade, cloud databases have experienced rapid development and growth. PolarDB, Alibaba's cloud-native OLTP database, has evolved significantly to meet the increasing demand for cloud-native architectures and now serves hundreds of thousands of customers across various industries.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>\n            This paper presents PolarDB's evolution over the past eight years, with a focus on scalability, performance, and cost-efficiency. Initially, PolarDB adopted a primary-replica architecture based on disaggregated storage, with an emphasis on enhancing single-node performance for scale-up in modern many-core systems. To achieve this, we co-designed PolarDB with cutting-edge hardware, including RDMA, to improve performance. Meanwhile, we refined the internal architecture, including improvements to B+ tree concurrency control and transaction management, ensuring high scalability in scale-up scenarios. More recently, our focus has shifted to scaling out PolarDB to meet the performance and scalability needs of ultra-large-scale applications. By leveraging RDMA, we optimized distributed transaction processing,\n            <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">transforming PolarDB into a high-performance, high-scalability and cost-effective distributed database.<\/jats:italic>\n            In the TPC-C benchmark, PolarDB scaled out to 2340 nodes and achieved over 2 billion tpmC, with a jitter rate of no more than 0.16% during the 8-hour stress test. Compared to the second- and third-highest-performing databases in public TPC-C results, PolarDB's tpmC is 2.52\u00d7 and 2.91\u00d7 higher, respectively. In terms of cost-effectiveness, PolarDB's per-tpmC cost is 37% and 79.5% lower than that of the other two systems, respectively.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.14778\/3750601.3750627","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T13:38:05Z","timestamp":1758029885000},"page":"5059-5072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["From Scale-Up to Scale-Out: PolarDB's Journey to Achieving 2 Billion tpmC"],"prefix":"10.14778","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Xinjun","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Feifei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yingqiang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qingda","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Panfeng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuai","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zongzhi","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zheyu","family":"Miao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rongbiao","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chuan","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zetao","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xingxuan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaofei","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alibaba Cloud Computing"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"2024. 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