{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T08:14:47Z","timestamp":1789460087138,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Walter de Gruyter GmbH","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>From 2010 to 2025, evidence increasingly identifies the gut microbiome, microbial dysbiosis, trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) as modulators of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. We conducted a narrative review of literature retrieved from PubMed, Scopus, and the Clinical Trials Registry\u2013India (CTRI), covering studies published between January 2010 and March 2025. A total of 103 primary studies (animal, n=15; human cohort, n=28; mechanistic, n=22; randomized controlled trials, n=38) and 10 ongoing clinical trials were reviewed. Germ-free and antibiotic-treated murine models support a role for TMA-producing microbial communities in plaque formation, whereas SCFA-producing communities attenuate inflammation and atherogenesis. In humans, elevated TMAO levels are associated with a 2\u20135-fold higher risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), although causal inference remains limited. Probiotics, synbiotics, dietary interventions, and fecal microbiota transplantation may improve TMAO, LDL cholesterol, and inflammatory markers, but definitive reductions in cardiovascular events have not been demonstrated. Overall, microbiome-targeted strategies remain promising but require large, diverse clinical trials to establish causality and clinical benefit.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1515\/jbcpp-2025-0190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T07:56:26Z","timestamp":1789458986000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microbiome and atherosclerosis: hype or future therapeutic target?"],"prefix":"10.1515","author":[{"given":"Zoya","family":"Hussain","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine , School of Medical Sciences and Research (SMS&R) Sharda University , Greater Noida , Uttar Pradesh , India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Madhuri","family":"Gali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine , Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute , Chennai , Tamil Nadu , India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dhruvilkumar","family":"Patel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine , Gujarat Medical Education & Research Society, Medical College and Hospital , Vadnagar , Gujarat , India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amritha Suresh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine , MAHSA University , Kuala Lumpur , Selangor , Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akkshaya Suresh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine , MAHSA University , Kuala Lumpur , Selangor , Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Akash","family":"Ranganatha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine , Jaya Jagadhguru Mururgarajendra Medical College (JJMMC) , Davangere , Karnataka , India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3695-0732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N. L.","family":"Swathi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Manipal College of Nursing, Manipal Academy of Higher Education , Manipal , Karnataka , India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sender, R, Fuchs, S, Milo, R. Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biol 2016;14:e1002533. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pbio.1002533.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1002533"},{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, WHW, Kitai, T, Hazen, SL. Gut microbiota in cardiovascular health and disease. 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A cardiovascular disease-linked gut microbial metabolite acts via adrenergic receptors. Cell 2020;180:862\u201377.e22. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.016.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.016"},{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rath, S, Heidrich, B, Pieper, DH, Vital, M. Uncovering the trimethylamine-producing bacteria of the human gut microbiota. Microbiome 2017;5:54. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40168-017-0271-9.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0271-9"},{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velasquez, MT, Ramezani, A, Manal, A, Raj, DS. Trimethylamine-N-oxide: the good, the bad and the unknown. Toxins 2016;8:326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/toxins8110326.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8110326"},{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schoeler, M, Caesar, R. Dietary lipids, gut microbiota and lipid metabolism. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2019;20:461\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11154-019-09512-0.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-019-09512-0"},{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, ML, Zhu, XH, Ran, L, Lang, HD, Yi, L, Mi, MT. Trimethylamine-N-oxide induces vascular inflammation by activating the NLRP3 inflammasome ThroSSignallingIRT3-SOD2-mtROS signaling pathway. J\u00a0Am Heart Assoc 2017;6:e006347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1161\/jaha.117.006347.","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.117.006347"},{"key":"2026091507562314541_j_jbcpp-2025-0190_ref_020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaworska, K, Bielinska, K, Gawrys-Kopczynska, M, Ufnal, M. TMA (trimethylamine), but not its oxide TMAO (trimethylamine-oxide), exerts haemodynamic effects: implications for interpretation of cardiovascular actions of gut microbiome. 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