{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T05:06:04Z","timestamp":1790226364491,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"Walter de Gruyter GmbH","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764547200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Texas Medical Branch, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Women's Health (CIRWH) and Sealy Center on Aging","award":["P30 AG024832"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 AG024832"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000065","name":"National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01NS122571"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS122571"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000065","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Currently, no US Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments exist to manage HIV-associated sensory neuropathy (HIV-SN) and management is largely confined to adjusting antiretroviral therapy (ART) doses and medications. Thus, this urgent health crisis requires strong research commitment to identify a cure or palliative treatment. This review explores the current state-of-the-art related to HIV-SN. It first explores recent developments in the understanding of HIV-SN, emphasizing the importance of developments in the HIV-SN mouse model and non-myelination intra epidermal never fiber denervation. Next, the neurotoxic side effects of ART are summarized. Finally, we explore the interactions and synergy between HIV-SN and ART in the pathogenesis of peripheral neuropathy. While the overall mortality related to HIV has decreased significantly in recent decades, further elucidation of the exact mechanisms of HIV-SN is needed to better treat patients living with HIV as a chronic condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1515\/nipt-2025-0010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,11]],"date-time":"2025-12-11T08:15:52Z","timestamp":1765440952000},"page":"363-375","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["HIV-associated sensory neuropathy: current progress and\u00a0future challenges"],"prefix":"10.1515","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Isaac J.","family":"Gamez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"John Sealy School of Medicine , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston , TX , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ajay","family":"Pal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston , TX , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Connor","family":"Haines","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"John Sealy School of Medicine , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston , TX , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6093-5666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Subo","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston , TX , USA"},{"name":"Institute for Human Infections and Immunity (IHII) , University of Texas Medical Branch , Galveston , TX , 77555 , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_001","unstructured":"UNAIDS. Global HIV Statistics, UNAIDS 2024 epidemiological estimates. 2025."},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trickey, A, Sabin, CA, Burkholder, G, Crane, H, d\u2019Arminio Monforte, A, Egger, M, et al.. Life expectancy after 2015 of adults with HIV on long-term antiretroviral therapy in Europe and North America: a collaborative analysis of cohort studies. The Lancet HIV 2023;10:e295\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2352-3018(23)00028-0.","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-3018(23)00028-0"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cervia, LD, McGowan, JP, Weseley, AJ. Clinical and demographic variables related to pain in HIV-infected individuals treated with effective, combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Pain Med 2010;11:498\u2013503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1526-4637.2010.00802.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1526-4637.2010.00802.x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruce, RD, Merlin, J, Lum, PJ, Ahmed, E, Alexander, C, Corbett, AH, et al.. 2017 HIVMA of IDSA clinical practice guideline for the management of chronic pain in patients living with HIV. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65:e1-e37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cid\/cix636","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix636"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thakur, KT, Boubour, A, Saylor, D, Das, M, Bearden, DR, Birbeck, GL. Global HIV neurology: a comprehensive review. Aids 2019;33:163\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/qad.0000000000001796.","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000001796"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabbai, AA, Castelo, A, Oliveira, AS. HIV peripheral neuropathy. Handb Clin Neurol 2013;115:515\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/b978-0-444-52902-2.00029-1.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52902-2.00029-1"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benjamin, LA, Bryer, A, Emsley, HC, Khoo, S, Solomon, T, Connor, MD. HIV infection and stroke: current perspectives and future directions. Lancet Neurol 2012;11:878\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s1474-4422(12)70205-3.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70205-3"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, B, Shi, Y, Shu, J, Gao, J, Wu, P, Tang, SJ. Wingless-type mammary tumor virus integration site family, member 5A (Wnt5a) regulates human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope glycoprotein 120 (gp120)-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines via the Ca2+\/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways. J Biol Chem 2013;288:13610\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1074\/jbc.M112.381046.","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.381046"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acharjee, S, Noorbakhsh, F, Stemkowski, PL, Olechowski, C, Cohen, EA, Ballanyi, K, et al.. HIV-1 viral protein R causes peripheral nervous system injury associated with in vivo neuropathic pain. Faseb J 2010;24:4343\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1096\/fj.10-162313.","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.10-162313"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Yuan, S, Tang, SJ. Morphine and HIV-1 gp120 cooperatively promote pathogenesis in the spinal pain neural circuit. Mol Pain 2019;15:1744806919868380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1744806919868380.","DOI":"10.1177\/1744806919868380"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, ME, Williams, AA, Naud\u00e9, PJW. Viral protein R (Vpr)-induced neuroinflammation and its potential contribution to neuronal dysfunction: a scoping review. BMC Infect Dis 2023;23:512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12879-023-08495-3.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-023-08495-3"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ru, W, Liu, X, Bae, C, Shi, Y, Walikonis, R, Mo Chung, J, et al.. Microglia mediate HIV-1 gp120-Induced synaptic degeneration in spinal pain neural circuits. J Neurosci 2019;39:8408\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2851-18.2019.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2851-18.2019"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anastasi, JK, Pakhomova, AM. Assessment and management of HIV distal sensory peripheral neuropathy: understanding the symptoms. J Nurse Pract 2020;16:276\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.nurpra.2019.12.019.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nurpra.2019.12.019"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alford, K, Daley, S, Banerjee, S, Hamlyn, E, Trotman, D, Vera, JH. \u201cA fog that impacts everything\u201d: a qualitative study of health-related quality of life in people living with HIV who have cognitive impairment. Qual Life Res 2022;31:3019\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11136-022-03150-x.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-022-03150-x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, BA, Bartt, R. Peripheral neuropathy associated with nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. In: St.Georgiev, V, Skowron, G, Ogden, R, Lange, JMA, editors. Reverse transcriptase inhibitors in HIV\/AIDS therapy. Humana Press; 2006:237\u201366 pp.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-59745-085-0_8"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, SR, Ellis, RJ, Chen, H, Yeh, T, Lee, AJ, Schifitto, G, et al.. Peripheral neuropathy in HIV: prevalence and risk factors. Aids 2011;25:919\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328345889d.","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328345889d"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hao, S. The molecular and pharmacological mechanisms of HIV-related neuropathic pain. Curr Neuropharmacol 2013;11:499\u2013512. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/1570159x11311050005.","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X11311050005"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Julian, T, Rekatsina, M, Shafique, F, Zis, P. Human immunodeficiency virus-related peripheral neuropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Neurol 2021;28:1420\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ene.14656.","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14656"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smyth, K, Affandi, JS, McArthur, JC, Bowtell-Harris, C, Mijch, A, Watson, K, et al.. Prevalence of and risk factors for HIV-associated neuropathy in Melbourne, Australia 1993-2006. HIV Med 2007;8:367\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-1293.2007.00478.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-1293.2007.00478.x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tassew, WC, Gebiru, AM, Getnet, M, Mengistie, BA, Bitew, DA, Getahun, AB, et al.. Sensory neuropathy and associated factors among patients living with human immuno-deficiency virus in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Virol J 2025;22:161. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12985-025-02789-5.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-025-02789-5"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winias, S, Radithia, D, Savitri Ernawati, D. Neuropathy complication of antiretroviral therapy in HIV\/AIDS patients. Oral Dis 2020;26:149\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/odi.13398.","DOI":"10.1111\/odi.13398"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolaidis, I, Karakasi, MV, Bakirtzis, C, Skoura, L, Pilalas, D, Boziki, MK, et al.. Epidemiology of HIV-associated peripheral neuropathy in people living with human immunodeficiency virus infection in Greece. Int J STD AIDS 2022;33:978\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09564624221119305.","DOI":"10.1177\/09564624221119305"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ngassa Mbenda, HG, Wadley, A, Lombard, Z, Cherry, C, Price, P, Kamerman, P. Genetics of HIV-associated sensory neuropathy and related pain in Africans. J Neurovirol 2017;23:511\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13365-017-0532-1.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-017-0532-1"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamerman, PR, Moss, PJ, Weber, J, Wallace, VC, Rice, AS, Huang, W. Pathogenesis of HIV-associated sensory neuropathy: evidence from in vivo and in vitro experimental models. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2012;17:19\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1529-8027.2012.00373.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8027.2012.00373.x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Julius, D, Basbaum, AI. Molecular mechanisms of nociception. Nature 2001;413:203\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/35093019.","DOI":"10.1038\/35093019"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L-H, Ding, W-Q, Sun, Y-G. Spinal ascending pathways for somatosensory information processing. Trends Neurosci 2022;45:594\u2013607. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2022.05.005.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2022.05.005"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, JT, Medress, ZA, Barres, BA. Axon degeneration: molecular mechanisms of a self-destruction pathway. J Cell Biol 2012;196:7\u201318. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1083\/jcb.201108111.","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201108111"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colloca, L, Ludman, T, Bouhassira, D, Baron, R, Dickenson, AH, Yarnitsky, D, et al.. Neuropathic pain. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2017;3:17002. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrdp.2017.2.","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.2"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kovalevich, J, Langford, D. Neuronal toxicity in HIV CNS disease. Future Virol 2012;7:687\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2217\/fvl.12.57.","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.12.57"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi, E, Meuser, ME, Cunanan, CJ, Cocklin, S. Structure, function, and interactions of the HIV-1 capsid protein. Life 2021;11:100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/life11020100.","DOI":"10.3390\/life11020100"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chi, X, Amet, T, Byrd, D, Chang, KH, Shah, K, Hu, N, et al.. Direct effects of HIV-1 Tat on excitability and survival of primary dorsal root ganglion neurons: possible contribution to HIV-1-associated pain. PLoS One 2011;6:e24412. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0024412.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024412"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J, Lin, F, Hu, Y, Bloe, CB, Wang, D, Zhang, W. From initiation to maintenance: HIV-1 Gp120-induced neuropathic pain exhibits different molecular mechanisms in the mouse spinal cord via bioinformatics analysis based on RNA sequencing. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2022;17:553\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11481-021-10044-1.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-021-10044-1"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y, Liu, J, Xiong, H. HIV-1 glycoprotein 120 enhancement of N-Methyl-D-Aspartate NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents: implications for HIV-1-associated neural injury. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2017;12:314\u201326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11481-016-9719-0.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-016-9719-0"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, HJ, Martemyanov, KA, Thayer, SA. Human immunodeficiency virus protein tat induces synapse loss via a reversible process that is distinct from cell death. J Neurosci 2008;28:12604\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/jneurosci.2958-08.2008.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2958-08.2008"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bennett, GJ, Doyle, T, Salvemini, D. Mitotoxicity in distal symmetrical sensory peripheral neuropathies. Nat Rev Neurol 2014;10:326\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrneurol.2014.77.","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2014.77"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, M, Lizama, BN, Chu, CT. Excitotoxicity, calcium and mitochondria: a triad in synaptic neurodegeneration. Transl Neurodegener 2022;11:3. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40035-021-00278-7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-021-00278-7"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, SB, Shi, Y, Chen, J, Zhou, X, Li, G, Gelman, BB, et al.. Gp120 in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus-associated pain. Ann Neurol 2014;75:837\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ana.24139.","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24139"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simone, DA, Nolano, M, Johnson, T, Wendelschafer-Crabb, G, Kennedy, WR. Intradermal injection of capsaicin in humans produces degeneration and subsequent reinnervation of epidermal nerve fibers: correlation with sensory function. J Neurosci 1998;18:8947\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/jneurosci.18-21-08947.1998.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.18-21-08947.1998"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Day, IN, Thompson, RJ. UCHL1 (PGP 9.5): neuronal biomarker and ubiquitin system protein. Prog Neurobiol 2010;90:327\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2009.10.020.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2009.10.020"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olson, W, Abdus-Saboor, I, Cui, L, Burdge, J, Raabe, T, Ma, M, et al.. Sparse genetic tracing reveals regionally specific functional organization of mammalian nociceptors. Elife 2017;6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.29507.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.29507"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, CL, Lin, YH, Lin, WM, Tai, TY, Hsieh, ST. Degeneration of nociceptive nerve terminals in human peripheral neuropathy. Neuroreport 2001;12:787\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00001756-200103260-00034.","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200103260-00034"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karlsson, P, Porretta-Serapiglia, C, Lombardi, R, Jensen, TS, Lauria, G. Dermal innervation in healthy subjects and small fiber neuropathy patients: a stereological reappraisal. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2013;18:48\u201353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jns5.12007.","DOI":"10.1111\/jns5.12007"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kokotis, P, Schmelz, M, Papadimas, GK, Skopelitis, EE, Aroni, K, Kordossis, T, et al.. Polyneuropathy induced by HIV disease and antiretroviral therapy. Clin Neurophysiol 2013;124:176\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.clinph.2012.05.022.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2012.05.022"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pardo, CA, McArthur, JC, Griffin, JW. HIV neuropathy: insights in the pathology of HIV peripheral nerve disease. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2001;6:21\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1529-8027.2001.006001021.x.","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1529-8027.2001.006001021.x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_045","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, L, Kitch, DW, Evans, SR, Hauer, P, Raman, S, Ebenezer, GJ, et al.. Correlates of epidermal nerve fiber densities in HIV-associated distal sensory polyneuropathy. Neurology 2007;68:2113\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/01.wnl.0000264888.87918.a1.","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000264888.87918.a1"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Gelman, BB, Lisinicchia, JG, Tang, SJ. Chronic-pain-associated astrocytic reaction in the spinal cord dorsal horn of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Neurosci 2012;32:10833\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/jneurosci.5628-11.2012.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5628-11.2012"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_047","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ebenezer, GJ, McArthur, JC, Thomas, D, Murinson, B, Hauer, P, Polydefkis, M, et al.. Denervation of skin in neuropathies: the sequence of axonal and Schwann cell changes in skin biopsies. Brain 2007;130:2703\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awm199.","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awm199"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shikuma, CM, Bennett, K, Ananworanich, J, Gerschenson, M, Teeratakulpisarn, N, Jadwattanakul, T, et al.. Distal leg epidermal nerve fiber density as a surrogate marker of HIV-associated sensory neuropathy risk: risk factors and change following initial antiretroviral therapy. J Neurovirol 2015;21:525\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13365-015-0352-0.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-015-0352-0"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mangus, LM, Dorsey, JL, Weinberg, RL, Ebenezer, GJ, Hauer, P, Laast, VA, et al.. Tracking epidermal nerve fiber changes in Asian macaques: tools and techniques for quantitative assessment. Toxicol Pathol 2016;44:904\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0192623316650286.","DOI":"10.1177\/0192623316650286"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_050","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, MM, Lee, JY, Kim, YH, Park, CK. Epidural and intrathecal drug delivery in rats and mice for experimental research: fundamental concepts, techniques, precaution, and application. Biomedicines 2023;11. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/biomedicines11051413.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11051413"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_051","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milligan, ED, O\u2019Connor, KA, Nguyen, KT, Armstrong, CB, Twining, C, Gaykema, RPA, et al.. Intrathecal HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 induces enhanced pain states mediated by spinal cord proinflammatory cytokines. J Neurosci 2001;21:2808\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/jneurosci.21-08-02808.2001.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-08-02808.2001"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_052","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keswani, SC, Jack, C, Zhou, C, Hoke, A. Establishment of a rodent model of HIV-associated sensory neuropathy. J Neurosci 2006;26:10299\u2013304. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3135-06.2006.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3135-06.2006"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_053","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, VC, Blackbeard, J, Segerdahl, AR, Hasnie, F, Pheby, T, McMahon, SB, et al.. Characterization of rodent models of HIV-gp120 and anti-retroviral-associated neuropathic pain. Brain 2007;130:2688\u2013702. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awm195.","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awm195"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_054","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Yuan, S, Li, B, Wang, J, Carlton, SM, Chung, K, et al.. Regulation of Wnt signaling by nociceptive input in animal models. Mol Pain 2012;8:47. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1744-8069-8-47.","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-8069-8-47"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schifitto, G, McDermott, MP, McArthur, JC, Marder, K, Sacktor, N, McClernon, DR, et al.. Markers of immune activation and viral load in HIV-associated sensory neuropathy. Neurology 2005;64:842\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/01.WNL.0000152981.32057.BB.","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000152981.32057.BB"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toggas, SM, Masliah, E, Rockenstein, EM, Rall, GF, Abraham, CR, Mucke, L. Central nervous system damage produced by expression of the HIV-1 coat protein gp120 in transgenic mice. Nature 1994;367:188\u201393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/367188a0.","DOI":"10.1038\/367188a0"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_057","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Gelman, BB, Lisinicchia, JG, Tang, S-J. Chronic-pain-associated astrocytic reaction in the spinal cord dorsal horn of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Neurosci 2012;32:10833. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5628-11.2012.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5628-11.2012"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X, Bae, C, Gelman, BB, Chung, JM, Tang, SJ. A neuron-to-astrocyte Wnt5a signal governs astrogliosis during HIV-associated pain pathogenesis. Brain 2022;145:4108\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awac015.","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awac015"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_059","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kohno, K, Kitano, J, Kohro, Y, Tozaki-Saitoh, H, Inoue, K, Tsuda, M. Temporal kinetics of microgliosis in the spinal dorsal horn after peripheral nerve injury in rodents. Biol Pharm Bull 2018;41:1096\u2013102. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1248\/bpb.b18-00278.","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.b18-00278"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, SB, Ji, G, Li, B, Andersson, T, Neugebauer, V, Tang, SJ. A Wnt5a signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 gp120-induced pain. Pain 2015;156:1311\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000000177.","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000000177"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, C, Ao, Z, Cerneckis, J, Cai, H, Chen, L, Niu, H, et al.. Understanding monocyte-driven neuroinflammation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease using human brain organoid microphysiological systems. bioRxiv 2025. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2025.02.16.638539.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.02.16.638539"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, X, Liu, H, Hamel, KA, Morvan, MG, Yu, S, Leff, J, et al.. Dorsal root ganglion macrophages contribute to both the initiation and persistence of neuropathic pain. Nat Commun 2020;11:264. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-019-13839-2.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13839-2"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_063","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Shu, J, Liang, Z, Yuan, S, Tang, S-J. Oligodendrocytes in HIV-associated pain pathogenesis. Mol Pain 2016;12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1744806916656845.","DOI":"10.1177\/1744806916656845"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keswani, SC, Polley, M, Pardo, CA, Griffin, JW, McArthur, JC, Hoke, A. Schwann cell chemokine receptors mediate HIV-1 gp120 toxicity to sensory neurons. Ann Neurol 2003;54:287\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ana.10645.","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.10645"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_065","unstructured":"Kemnic, TR, Gulick, PG. HIV antiretroviral therapy. StatsPearls [Internet]: StatsPearls Publishing; 2022."},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_066","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, W, Dalakas, MC. Mitochondrial toxicity of antiviral drugs. Nat Med 1995;1:417\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nm0595-417.","DOI":"10.1038\/nm0595-417"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, TS. Eukaryotic DNA polymerases. Annu Rev Biochem 1991;60:513\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.bi.60.070191.002501.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bi.60.070191.002501"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_068","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wright, GE, Brown, NC. Deoxyribonucleotide analogs as inhibitors and substrates of DNA polymerases. Pharmacol Ther 1990;47:447\u201397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0163-7258(90)90066-b.","DOI":"10.1016\/0163-7258(90)90066-B"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundgren, JD, Babiker, AG, Gordin, F, Emery, S, Grund, B, Sharma, S, et al.. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:795\u2013807. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMoa1506816.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1506816"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Margolis, AM, Heverling, H, Pham, PA, Stolbach, A. A review of the toxicity of HIV medications. J Med Toxicol 2014;10:26\u201339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13181-013-0325-8.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-013-0325-8"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, T, Zhang, J, Geng, M, Tang, SJ, Zhang, W, Shu, J. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) induce proinflammatory cytokines in the CNS via Wnt5a signaling. Sci Rep 2017;7:4117. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-017-03446-w.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03446-w"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, S, Shi, Y, Guo, K, Tang, SJ. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) induce pathological pain through Wnt5a-mediated neuroinflammation in aging mice. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2018;13:230\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11481-018-9777-6.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-018-9777-6"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_073","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lichtenstein, KA, Armon, C, Baron, A, Moorman, AC, Wood, KC, Holmberg, SD. Modification of the incidence of drug-associated symmetrical peripheral neuropathy by host and disease factors in the HIV outpatient study cohort. Clin Infect Dis 2005;40:148\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/426076.","DOI":"10.1086\/426076"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_074","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yarchoan, R, Mitsuya, H, Broder, S. Immunologic issues in anti-retroviral therapy. Immunol Today 1990;11:327\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0167-5699(90)90128-v.","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-5699(90)90128-V"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_075","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yarchoan, R, Perno, CF, Thomas, RV, Klecker, RW, Allain, JP, Wills, RJ, et al.. Phase I studies of 2\u2032,3\u2032-dideoxycytidine in severe human immunodeficiency virus infection as a single agent and alternating with zidovudine (AZT). Lancet 1988;1:76\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0140-6736(88)90283-8.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(88)90283-8"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_076","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fields, JA, Swinton, MK, Carson, A, Soontornniyomkij, B, Lindsay, C, Han, MM, et al.. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate induces peripheral neuropathy and alters inflammation and mitochondrial biogenesis in the brains of mice. Sci Rep 2019;9:17158. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-019-53466-x.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53466-x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_077","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson, K, Liner, J, Meeker, RB. Antiretroviral neurotoxicity. J Neurovirol 2012;18:388\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13365-012-0120-3.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13365-012-0120-3"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Julg, B, Bogner, JR. Atriplatrade mark \u2013 HIV therapy in one pill. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2008;4:573\u20137.","DOI":"10.2147\/TCRM.S2205"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson, J, Ed\u00e9n, A, Nystr\u00f6m, K, Hagberg, L, Yilmaz, A, Gostner, JM, et al.. Increased immune activation and signs of neuronal injury in HIV-negative people on preexposure prophylaxis. AIDS 2021;35:2129\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/QAD.0000000000002980.","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0000000000002980"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chou, R, Spencer, H, Bougatsos, C, Blazina, I, Ahmed, A, Selph, S. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV: updated evidence report and systematic review for the US preventive services task force. JAMA 2023;330:746\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.2023.9865.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.9865"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owino, F, Mandala, J, Ambia, J, Agot, K, Van Damme, L. Neurological syndrome in an HIV-prevention trial participant randomized to daily tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (300 mg) and emtricitabine (200 mg) in Bondo, Kenya. Int Med Case Rep J 2013;6:91\u20133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/IMCRJ.S52015.","DOI":"10.2147\/IMCRJ.S52015"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, CH, Cheng, YC. The role of cytoplasmic deoxycytidine kinase in the mitochondrial effects of the anti-human immunodeficiency virus compound, 2\u2032,3\u2032-dideoxycytidine. J Biol Chem 1992;267:2856\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0021-9258(19)50661-5.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)50661-5"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_080","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cherrington, JM, Allen, SJ, McKee, BH, Chen, MS. Kinetic analysis of the interaction between the diphosphate of (S)-1-(3-hydroxy-2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl)cytosine, ddCTP, AZTTP, and FIAUTP with human DNA polymerases beta and gamma. Biochem Pharmacol 1994;48:1986\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0006-2952(94)90600-9.","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(94)90600-9"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray, NM, Marr, CL, Penn, CR, Cameron, JM, Bethell, RC. The intracellular phosphorylation of (-)-2\u2032-deoxy-3\u2032-thiacytidine (3TC) and the incorporation of 3TC 5\u2032-monophosphate into DNA by HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and human DNA polymerase gamma. Biochem Pharmacol 1995;50:1043\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0006-2952(95)96620-a.","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(95)96620-A"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, P, Farquhar, D, Plunkett, W. Selective action of 2\u2032,3\u2032-didehydro-2\u2032,3\u2032-dideoxythymidine triphosphate on human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase and human DNA polymerases. J Biol Chem 1992;267:2817\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0021-9258(18)45952-2.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)45952-2"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, P, Farquhar, D, Plunkett, W. Selective action of 3\u2032-azido-3\u2032-deoxythymidine 5\u2032-triphosphate on viral reverse transcriptases and human DNA polymerases. J Biol Chem 1990;265:11914\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0021-9258(19)38487-x.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(19)38487-X"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, WB, White, EL, Shaddix, SC, Ross, LJ, Buckheit, RWJr, Germany, JM, et al.. Mechanism of inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase and human DNA polymerases alpha, beta, and gamma by the 5\u2032-triphosphates of carbovir, 3\u2032-azido-3\u2032-deoxythymidine, 2\u2032,3\u2032-dideoxyguanosine and 3\u2032-deoxythymidine. A novel RNA template for the evaluation of antiretroviral drugs. J Biol Chem 1991;266:1754\u201362. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0021-9258(18)52360-7.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)52360-7"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_085","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, CH, Vazquez-Padua, M, Cheng, YC. Effect of anti-human immunodeficiency virus nucleoside analogs on mitochondrial DNA and its implication for delayed toxicity. Mol Pharmacol 1991;39:625\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0026-895x(25)11067-5.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0026-895X(25)11067-5"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, YC, Gao, WY, Chen, CH, Vazquez-Padua, M, Starnes, MC. DNA polymerases versus HIV reverse transcriptase in AIDS therapy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1990;616:217\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1990.tb17842.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1990.tb17842.x"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_087","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yarchoan, R, Mitsuya, H, Myers, CE, Broder, S. Clinical pharmacology of 3\u2032-azido-2\u2032,3\u2032-dideoxythymidine (zidovudine) and related dideoxynucleosides. N Engl J Med 1989;321:726\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/nejm198909143211106.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198909143211106"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_088","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00f6schele, D. Cell culture models for the investigation of NRTI-induced mitochondrial toxicity. Relevance for the prediction of clinical toxicity. Toxicol In Vitro 2006;20:535\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tiv.2005.11.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2005.11.007"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_089","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kakuda, TN. Pharmacology of nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor-induced mitochondrial toxicity. Clin Ther 2000;22:685\u2013708. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0149-2918(00)90004-3.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-2918(00)90004-3"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dagan, T, Sable, C, Bray, J, Gerschenson, M. Mitochondrial dysfunction and antiretroviral nucleoside analog toxicities: what is the evidence? Mitochondrion 2002;1:397\u2013412. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s1567-7249(02)00003-x.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-7249(02)00003-X"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_091","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, W, Haase, CP, Raidel, SM, Russ, RB, Sutliff, RL, Hoit, BD, et al.. Combined antiretroviral therapy causes cardiomyopathy and elevates plasma lactate in transgenic AIDS mice. Lab Invest 2001;81:1527\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/labinvest.3780366.","DOI":"10.1038\/labinvest.3780366"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, W, Gonzalez, B, Chomyn, A, Papoian, T. Zidovudine induces molecular, biochemical, and ultrastructural changes in rat skeletal muscle mitochondria. J Clin Investig 1992;89:1354\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1172\/jci115722.","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI115722"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_093","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brinkman, K, ter Hofstede, HJ, Burger, DM, Smeitink, JA, Koopmans, PP. Adverse effects of reverse transcriptase inhibitors: mitochondrial toxicity as common pathway. Aids 1998;12:1735\u201344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00002030-199814000-00004.","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199814000-00004"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_094","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carr, A, Cooper, DA. Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 2000;356:1423\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0140-6736(00)02854-3.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02854-3"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walker, UA, Bickel, M, L\u00fctke Volksbeck, SI, Ketelsen, UP, Sch\u00f6fer, H, Setzer, B, et al.. Evidence of nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor \u2013 associated genetic and structural defects of mitochondria in adipose tissue of HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002;29:117\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/00042560-200202010-00002.","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200202010-00002"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_096","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hung, KM, Chen, PC, Hsieh, HC, Calkins, MJ. Mitochondrial defects arise from nucleoside\/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors in neurons: potential contribution to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2017;1863:406\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.bbadis.2016.11.017.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2016.11.017"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_097","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haynes, J, Joshi, A, Larue, RC, Eisenmann, ED, Govindarajan, R. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI)-induced neuropathy and mitochondrial toxicity: limitations of the Poly-\u03b3 hypothesis and the potential roles of autophagy and drug transport. Pharmaceutics. \u00a9 2024 by the authors 2024;12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16121592"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_098","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamanaka, H, Gatanaga, H, Kosalaraksa, P, Matsuoka-Aizawa, S, Takahashi, T, Kimura, S, et al.. Novel mutation of human DNA polymerase gamma associated with mitochondrial toxicity induced by anti-HIV treatment. J Infect Dis 2007;195:1419\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/513872.","DOI":"10.1086\/513872"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_099","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, W. Pharmacogenomics, toxicogenomics, and DNA polymerase gamma. J Infect Dis 2007;10:1399\u2013401.","DOI":"10.1086\/513879"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boustani, A, Kulbe, JR, Andalibi, MS, P\u00e9rez-Santiago, J, Mehta, SR, Ellis, RJ, et al.. Mitochondrial DNA and electron transport chain protein levels are altered in peripheral nerve tissues from donors with HIV sensory neuropathy: a pilot study. Int J Mol Sci 2024;25. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms25094732.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25094732"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y, Li, N, Zhang, X, Horng, T. Mitochondrial metabolism regulates macrophage biology. J Biol Chem 2021;297:100904. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbc.2021.100904.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbc.2021.100904"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_102","unstructured":"Lewis, W, Griniuviene, B, Tankersley, KO, Levine, ES, Montione, R, Engelman, L, et al.. Depletion of mitochondrial DNA, destruction of mitochondria, and accumulation of lipid droplets result from fialuridine treatment in woodchucks (Marmota monax). Lab Invest 1997;76:77\u201387."},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wallace, DC. Diseases of the mitochondrial DNA. Annu Rev Biochem 1992;61:1175\u2013212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.bi.61.070192.005523.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bi.61.070192.005523"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sokoloff, L. Cerebral metabolism and visualization of cerebral activity. In: Greger, R, Windhorst, U, editors. Comprehensive human physiology: from cellular mechanisms to integration. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer; 1996:579\u2013602 pp.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-60946-6_30"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson, JS, Witton, J, Johnson, JD, Ahmed, Z, Ward, M, Randall, AD, et al.. Altered synapse stability in the early stages of tauopathy. Cell Rep 2017;18:3063\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.03.013.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.03.013"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bush, KM, Barber, KR, Martinez, JA, Tang, S-J, Wairkar, YP. Drosophila model of anti-retroviral therapy induced peripheral neuropathy and nociceptive hypersensitivity. Biology Open 2021;10:bio054635. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1242\/bio.054635.","DOI":"10.1242\/bio.054635"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bush, KM, Barber, KR, Martinez, JA, Tang, SJ, Wairkar, YP. Drosophila model of anti-retroviral therapy induced peripheral neuropathy and nociceptive hypersensitivity. Biol Open 2021;10. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1242\/bio.054635.","DOI":"10.1242\/bio.054635"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pahuja, M, Grobler, A, Glesby, MJ, Karim, F, Parker, G, Gumede, S, et al.. Effects of a reduced dose of stavudine on the incidence and severity of peripheral neuropathy in HIV-infected adults in South Africa. Antivir Ther 2012;17:737\u201343. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3851\/imp2087.","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP2087"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, MR, Urits, I, Wolf, J, Corrigan, D, Colburn, L, Peterson, E, et al.. Drug-induced peripheral neuropathy: a narrative review. Curr Clin Pharmacol 2020;15:38\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/1574884714666190121154813.","DOI":"10.2174\/1574884714666190121154813"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Shu, J, Gelman, BB, Lisinicchia, JG, Tang, SJ. Wnt signaling in the pathogenesis of human HIV-associated pain syndromes. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2013;8:956\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11481-013-9474-4.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-013-9474-4"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y, Yuan, S, Tang, SJ. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical for morphine exacerbation of HIV-1 gp120-Induced pain. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2021;16:581\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11481-020-09951-6.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-020-09951-6"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osborne, O, Peyravian, N, Nair, M, Daunert, S, Toborek, M. The paradox of HIV blood-brain barrier penetrance and antiretroviral drug delivery deficiencies. Trends Neurosci 2020;43:695\u2013708. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tins.2020.06.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2020.06.007"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strazza, M, Pirrone, V, Wigdahl, B, Nonnemacher, MR. Breaking down the barrier: the effects of HIV-1 on the blood-brain barrier. Brain Res 2011;1399:96\u2013115. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brainres.2011.05.015.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2011.05.015"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, C, Ling, Z, Newman, MB, Bhatia, A, Carvey, PM. TNF-alpha knockout and minocycline treatment attenuates blood-brain barrier leakage in MPTP-treated mice. Neurobiol Dis 2007;26:36\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.nbd.2006.11.012.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2006.11.012"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nair, M, Guduru, R, Liang, P, Hong, J, Sagar, V, Khizroev, S. Externally controlled on-demand release of anti-HIV drug using magneto-electric nanoparticles as carriers. Nat Commun 2013;4:1707. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/ncomms2717.","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms2717"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fotooh Abadi, L, Kumar, P, Paknikar, K, Gajbhiye, V, Kulkarni, S. Tenofovir-tethered gold nanoparticles as a novel multifunctional long-acting anti-HIV therapy to overcome deficient drug delivery-: an in vivo proof of concept. J Nanobiotechnol 2023;21:19. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12951-022-01750-w.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-022-01750-w"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nair, M, Jayant, RD, Kaushik, A, Sagar, V. Getting into the brain: potential of nanotechnology in the management of NeuroAIDS. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016;103:202\u201317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.addr.2016.02.008.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2016.02.008"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussein, M, Molina, MA, Berkhout, B, Herrera-Carrillo, E. A CRISPR-cas cure for HIV\/AIDS. Int J Mol Sci 2023;24. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms24021563.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021563"},{"key":"2025123112070691997_j_nipt-2025-0010_ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K, Conboy, M, Park, HM, Jiang, F, Kim, HJ, Dewitt, MA, et al.. Nanoparticle delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein and donor DNA in vivo induces homology-directed DNA repair. Nat Biomed Eng 2017;1:889\u2013901. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41551-017-0137-2.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-017-0137-2"}],"container-title":["NeuroImmune Pharmacology and Therapeutics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyterbrill.com\/document\/doi\/10.1515\/nipt-2025-0010\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyterbrill.com\/document\/doi\/10.1515\/nipt-2025-0010\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T12:07:28Z","timestamp":1767182848000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyterbrill.com\/document\/doi\/10.1515\/nipt-2025-0010\/html"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1515\/nipt-2025-0010"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/nipt-2025-0010","relation":{},"ISSN":["2750-6665"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2750-6665","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]]}}}