{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T20:53:39Z","timestamp":1777668819068,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2000,3,1]],"date-time":"2000-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":951868800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Troubleshooting is often a time-consuming and difficult activity. The question of how the training of novice technicians can be improved was the starting point of the research described in this article. A cognitive task analysis was carried out consisting of two preliminary observational studies on troubleshooting in naturalistic settings, combined with an interpretation of the data obtained in the context of the existing literature. On the basis of this cognitive task analysis, a new method for the training of troubleshooting was developed (structured troubleshooting), which combines a domain-independent strategy for troubleshooting with a context-dependent, multiple-level, functional decomposition of systems. This method has been systematically evaluated for its use in training. The results show that technicians trained in structured troubleshooting solve twice as many malfunctions, in less time, than those trained in the traditional way. Moreover, structured troubleshooting can be taught in less time than can traditional troubleshooting. Finally, technicians learn to troubleshoot in an explicit and uniform way. These advantages of structured troubleshooting ultimately lead to a reduction in training and troubleshooting costs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1518\/001872000779656570","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,1,25]],"date-time":"2007-01-25T18:02:02Z","timestamp":1169748122000},"page":"75-86","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":72,"title":["Cognitive Task Analysis and Innovation of Training: The Case of Structured Troubleshooting"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Alma","family":"Schaafstal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jan Maarten","family":"Schraagen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcel","family":"van Berl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TNO Human Factors, Soesterberg, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2000,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/135467897394284"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/21.31027"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(69)80124-6"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093599"},{"key":"atypb5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197595"},{"key":"atypb6","first-page":"513","volume-title":"Proceedings of the World Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education","author":"Frederiksen, J. 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S."},{"key":"atypb14","volume-title":"Information processing and human-machine interaction: An approach to cognitive engineering.","author":"Rasmussen, J.","year":"1986"},{"key":"atypb15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/imms.1993.1012"},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(87)80012-3"},{"key":"atypb17","unstructured":"Schaafstal, A. M. (1991).\n                      Diagnostic skill in process operation: A comparison between experts and novices.\n                      Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Groningen University, Netherlands."},{"key":"atypb18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139308968001"},{"key":"atypb19","volume-title":"Innovatie van de functie-opleiding Oto Melara","author":"Schaafstal, A. M.","year":"1998"},{"key":"atypb20","volume-title":"A method for cognitive task analysis","author":"Schaafstal, A. M.","year":"1992"},{"key":"atypb21","unstructured":"Schaafstal, A. M. & Schraagen, J. M. C. (1993). Training of systematic diagnosis: A case study in electronics troubleshooting. In Proceedings of AI-ED 1993: World conference on artificial intelligence in education (pp. 529\u2013533). Amsterdam: IOS Press."},{"key":"atypb22","volume-title":"Diagnose van storingen in een Sewaco-deelsysteem: De LW08 radar","author":"Schraagen, J. M. C.","year":"1991"},{"key":"atypb23","volume-title":"Evaluatie van een nieuwe methode voor gestructureerd storingzoeken in de SMR\u03bc [Evaluation of a new method for structured troubleshooting in the SMR\u03bc]","author":"Schraagen, J. M. C.","year":"1995"},{"key":"atypb24","first-page":"5","volume":"59","author":"Schraagen, J. M. C.","year":"1996","journal-title":"Le Travail Humain"},{"key":"atypb25","volume-title":"The sciences of the artificial","author":"Simon, H. 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