{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T05:17:28Z","timestamp":1767676648134,"version":"3.38.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2000,12,1]],"date-time":"2000-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":975628800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> In 2 experiments, U.S. Army soldiers viewed computer-generated displays that presented battlefield information from 3 different frames of reference: a 2D plan view display (with contour lines), a 3D exocentric perspective display, and an interactive 3D immersed display. In Experiment 1, soldiers made geographical judgments. The results suggested that both 3D displays suffered from ambiguity of distance estimates but that the 3D immersed display was most accurate for judging whether a location is directly visible from another. In Experiment 2, the 3D exocentric display was compared with a 3D immersed view, coupled with a small 2D inset map, in a more continuous battlefield scenario in which judgments of enemy activity were made. The findings of 3D ambiguity were replicated from Experiment 1. The accuracy of judgments of enemy activity suffered with the immersed display when information necessary to answer correctly did not appear in the initial forward view and required panning to acquire, reflecting the cognitive demands of integration across different views. This display also hindered soldiers' ability to report changes in enemy activity from one scene to the next. The results of this research will help to provide guidelines for the appropriate choice of computer display technology to assist in designing battlefield visualization aids. Caution should be exercised in choosing immersive viewpoints. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1518\/001872000779698015","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,1,28]],"date-time":"2007-01-28T22:54:27Z","timestamp":1170024867000},"page":"660-675","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Frames of Reference for the Display of Battlefield Information: Judgment-Display Dependencies"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Christopher D.","family":"Wickens","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois Aviation Research Laboratory, Savoy, Illinois"}]},{"given":"Lisa C.","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois Aviation Research Laboratory, Savoy, Illinois"}]},{"given":"Rachel","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human Factors International, Chicago, Illinois"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2000,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/106480469500300403"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089103300107"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banks, R., Wickens, C. D. & Hah, S. (1998). Commander's display of terrain information: Manipulations of display dimensionality and frame of reference to support battlefield visualization. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual FedLab Symposium: Advanced displays and interactive displays (pp. 69\u201373). College Park, MD: U.S. Army Research Federated Laboratory Consortium.","DOI":"10.1037\/e444962005-001"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327108ijap0503_1"},{"key":"atypb5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.5.1.76"},{"key":"atypb6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1117\/12.237425"},{"key":"atypb7","volume-title":"Pictorial communication in virtual and real environments","author":"Ellis, S. R.","year":"1993","edition":"2"},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900401"},{"volume-title":"Eye and brain.","year":"1977","author":"Gregory, R. L.","key":"atypb9"},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.5.3.284"},{"key":"atypb11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(92)90002-J"},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779591403"},{"key":"atypb13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088602800406"},{"volume-title":"Head mounted displays: Designing for the user.","year":"1997","author":"Melzer, J. E.","key":"atypb14"},{"key":"atypb15","unstructured":"Merwin, D., O'Brien, J. V. & Wickens, C. D. (1997). Perspective and coplanar representation of air traffic: Implications for conflict and weather avoidance. In Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology (pp. 362\u2013367). Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Applied Mechanics, and Aviation."},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327108ijap0701_3"},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327108IJAP1003_03"},{"volume-title":"Revised Vandenberg and Kuse mental rotation tests: Forms MRT-A to MRT-D","year":"1995","author":"Peters, M.","key":"atypb18"},{"key":"atypb19","first-page":"81","volume":"2","author":"Ray, C. K.w","year":"1994","journal-title":"Military Review"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.5.1.54"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779480497"},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA436774"},{"volume-title":"The confirmation bias in military situation assessment","year":"1989","author":"Tolcott, M. A.","key":"atypb23"},{"key":"atypb24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.185.4157.1124"},{"key":"atypb25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1978.47.2.599"},{"key":"atypb26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900308"},{"key":"atypb27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincow, M. A. & Wickens, C. D. (1998). Frame of reference and navigation through document visualizations: Flying through information space. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 42nd Annual Meeting (pp. 511\u2013515). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.","DOI":"10.1177\/154193129804200514"},{"key":"atypb28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/1480.003.0010","volume-title":"Attention and performance","author":"Wickens, C. D.","year":"1999"},{"key":"atypb29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463399008619"},{"key":"atypb30","volume-title":"Engineering psychology and human performance","author":"Wickens, C. D.","year":"2000","edition":"3"},{"key":"atypb31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327108ijap0603_3"},{"key":"atypb32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089403600103"},{"key":"atypb33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-898X.1.2.110"},{"key":"atypb34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872096778940804"},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(84)80043-7"},{"key":"atypb36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872099779656752"},{"key":"atypb37","unstructured":"Yu, P. C. & Andre, A. D. (1999). A simulator evaluation of four perspective scene viewpoints. In Proceedings of the Silicon Valley Ergonomics Conference and Exposition-ErgoCon 99 (pp. 233\u2013242). San Jose, CA: San Jose State University."}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1518\/001872000779698015","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1518\/001872000779698015","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T18:07:02Z","timestamp":1741630022000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1518\/001872000779698015"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2000,12]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1518\/001872000779698015"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1518\/001872000779698015","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0018-7208"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1547-8181"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2000,12]]}}}