{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T06:28:06Z","timestamp":1775197686238,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2006,6,1]],"date-time":"2006-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1149120000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Objective: This study examined perceived time to collision (TTC) with automobile drivers under realistic approach, rear-end crash scenario conditions. Background: TTC refers to the time before impact if prevailing conditions continue. Method: In this test track study involving 51 drivers ranging from 20 to 70 years old, the driver's vision was occluded at either 3.6 or 5.6 s TTC during an in-lane approach to a lead vehicle. Drivers provided TTC estimates by pressing a button the instant they felt that they would have collided with the vehicle ahead. Results: Results indicated that TTC was consistently underestimated. The TTC ratio (perceived TTC\/actual TTC) increased as driver speed decreased and as relative speed increased. These ratios were largely unaffected by age, gender, actual TTC, viewing time (1 s vs. continuous), and the presence of an eyes-forward, mental addition distraction task. Conclusion: Overall, these results suggest that under these low TTC conditions drivers estimate TTC in a relatively uniform fashion and that they are capable of providing this estimate based on a brief glimpse to the vehicle ahead. Application: These results are being used to develop an alert timing approach for a forward collision warning system intended to assist drivers in avoiding rear-end crashes with the vehicle ahead. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1518\/001872006777724499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,6,30]],"date-time":"2006-06-30T14:05:24Z","timestamp":1151676324000},"page":"334-345","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":77,"title":["Time-to-Collision Judgments Under Realistic Driving Conditions"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"48","author":[{"given":"Raymond J.","family":"Kiefer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"General Motors, Warren, Michigan"}]},{"given":"Carol A.","family":"Flannagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Michigan Transportation Institute, Ann Arbor, Michigan"}]},{"given":"Christian J.","family":"Jerome","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2006,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1068\/p170623"},{"key":"atypb2","first-page":"97","volume-title":"Traffic and transport psychology: Theory and application","author":"Cavallo, V.","year":"1997"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087401600208"},{"key":"atypb4","volume-title":"Understanding driving: Applying cognitive psychology to a complex everyday driving task","author":"Groeger, J.","year":"2000"},{"key":"atypb5","first-page":"363","volume-title":"Vision in vehicles VII","author":"Groeger, J. 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