{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T21:04:27Z","timestamp":1777669467935,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2006,9,1]],"date-time":"2006-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1157068800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: This paper describes an experiment directed toward refinement and initial field testing of two potential countermeasures for the problem of rear-end (RE) crashes. The countermeasures consist of \u201cimminent warning\u201d signals intended to direct the following driver's visual glance to the lead vehicle as it brakes rapidly to a stop and for a short time thereafter. Background: RE crashes are the most frequently occurring type of light vehicle crash, making up at least 25% of all crashes. Method: A preliminary experiment was conducted to facilitate improvement of the attention-getting capability of an alternating pair of lamps. In the main experiment, an oscillating narrow beam lamp (a promising candidate from a previous experiment) and an improved alternating pair (improved as compared with that in a previous experiment) were compared with ordinary rear lighting. Seventy-two drivers were purposely distracted by in-vehicle tasks as the lead (surrogate) vehicle braked hard. Results: Results showed improvements of 0.25 to 0.35 s in brake activation times for the two enhanced configurations as compared with ordinary rear lighting. Conclusion: The two enhanced lighting configurations show promise in reducing the number and severity of RE crashes. Application: The methods and results of this study can be applied to the future design and evaluation of automotive rear-end lighting designed to reduce RE crashes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1518\/001872006778606831","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,10,8]],"date-time":"2006-10-08T18:49:33Z","timestamp":1160333373000},"page":"615-626","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Test Road Experiment on Imminent Warning Rear Lighting and Signaling"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"48","author":[{"given":"Walter W.","family":"Wierwille","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Suzanne E.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maryanne C.","family":"DeHart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Perel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2006,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","volume-title":"Forty-four crashes, Version 3.0","author":"General Motors.","year":"1997"},{"key":"atypb2","volume-title":"Development and validation of functional definitions and evaluation procedures for collision warning\/avoidance systems","author":"Kiefer, R.","year":"1999"},{"key":"atypb3","unstructured":"Knipling, R. R., Hendricks, D. L., Koziol, J. S., Allen, J. C., Tijerina, L. & Wilson, C. (1992). A front-end analysis of rear-end crashes. In Proceedings of the IVHS America 1992 Annual Meeting (Vol. 2. pp. 733\u2013745). Washington, DC: IVHS America."},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1843-05"},{"key":"atypb5","volume-title":"Enhanced rear lighting and signaling systems: Literature review and analyses of alternative system concepts","author":"Lee, S. E.","year":"2002"},{"key":"atypb6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1724-05"},{"key":"atypb7","volume-title":"Historical development and current effectiveness of rear lighting systems","author":"Moore, D. W.","year":"1999"},{"key":"atypb8","volume-title":"Dynamic evaluation of automobile rear lighting configurations","author":"Mortimer, R. G.","year":"1969"},{"key":"atypb9","volume-title":"Field test evaluation of rear lighting deceleration signals: II. Field test","author":"Mortimer, R. G.","year":"1981"},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mortimer, R. G. (1997). Vehicle-driver communications to reduce rear-end collisions: What makes sense and why? In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 41st Annual Meeting (pp. 849\u2013853) Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.","DOI":"10.1177\/107118139704100226"},{"key":"atypb11","unstructured":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (1999a).\n                      Fatality Analysis Reporting System\n                      [Data file]. Downloadable from ftp:\/\/ftp.nhtsa.dot.gov\/fars\/1999\/."},{"key":"atypb12","unstructured":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (1999b).\n                      General Estimates System\n                      [Data file]. Downloadable from ftp:\/\/ftp.nhtsa.dot.gov\/ges\/GES99\/."},{"key":"atypb13","volume-title":"Driver\/vehicle characteristics in rear-end pre-crash scenarios based on the General Estimates System (GES)","author":"Wiacek, C. J.","year":"1999"},{"key":"atypb14","volume-title":"Enhanced rear lighting and signaling systems: Testing and optimization of high level and stopped\/slowly-moving vehicle rear signaling systems","author":"Wierwille, W. W.","year":"2003"},{"key":"atypb15","volume-title":"Project final report emphasizing Task 3 results: Test road experiment on high-level rear lighting","author":"Wierwille, W. W.","year":"2005"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1518\/001872006778606831","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1518\/001872006778606831","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T07:53:07Z","timestamp":1777449187000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1518\/001872006778606831"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2006,9]]},"references-count":15,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1518\/001872006778606831"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1518\/001872006778606831","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2006,9]]}}}