{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T14:03:04Z","timestamp":1775311384777,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2008,6,1]],"date-time":"2008-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1212278400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: We describe major discoveries and developments in vigilance research. Background: Vigilance tasks have typically been viewed as undemanding assignments requiring little mental effort. The vigilance decrement function has also been considered to result from a decline in arousal brought about by understimulation. Methods: Recent research in vigilance is reviewed in four areas: studies of task type, perceived mental workload during vigilance, neural measures of resource demand in vigilance, and studies of task-induced stress. Results: Experiments comparing successive and simultaneous vigilance tasks support an attentional resource theory of vigilance. Subjective reports also show that the workload of vigilance is high and sensitive to factors that increase processing demands. Neuroimaging studies using transcranial Doppler sonography provide strong, independent evidence for resource changes linked to performance decrement in vigilance tasks. Finally, physiological and subjective reports confirm that vigilance tasks reduce task engagement and increase distress and that these changes rise with increased task difficulty. Conclusions: Converging evidence using behavioral, neural, and subjective measures shows that vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful. Application: This research applies to most human-machine systems that require human monitoring, particularly those involving automated subsystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008x312152","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,6,23]],"date-time":"2008-06-23T09:07:19Z","timestamp":1214212039000},"page":"433-441","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":930,"title":["Vigilance Requires Hard Mental Work and Is Stressful"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"50","author":[{"given":"Joel S.","family":"Warm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio,"}]},{"given":"Raja","family":"Parasuraman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia"}]},{"given":"Gerald","family":"Matthews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-8864-4_4"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900612"},{"key":"atypb3","first-page":"15","volume":"35","author":"Arrabito, G.R.","year":"2007","journal-title":"Canadian Acoustics"},{"key":"atypb4","volume-title":"Man and radar displays","author":"Baker, C.H.","year":"1962"},{"key":"atypb5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01688639608408307"},{"key":"atypb6","unstructured":"Becker, A.B., Warm, J.S., Dember, W.N. & Howe, S.R. (1994). Specific and nonspecific transfer effects in training for vigilance. In M. Mouloua & R. Parasuraman (Eds.), Human performance in automated systems: Current research and trends (pp. 294-299). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872007779598073"},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/10037-000"},{"key":"atypb9","volume-title":"Decision and stress","author":"Broadbent, D.E.","year":"1971"},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872086500700207"},{"key":"atypb11","unstructured":"Buckner, D.N. & McGrath, J.J. (1963). Acomparison of performance on single and dual sensory mode vigilance tasks . In D. N. Buckner & J. J. McGrath (Eds.), Vigilance: A symposium (pp. 69-81). New York: McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196724"},{"key":"atypb13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0024343"},{"key":"atypb14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-2529-1_10"},{"key":"atypb15","volume-title":"Sensation and perception","author":"Coren, S.","year":"2004","edition":"6"},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(98)00035-9"},{"key":"atypb17","unstructured":"Craig, A. (1985). Field studies of human inspection: The application of vigilance research. In S. Folkard & T. H. Monk (Eds.), Hours of work: Temporal factors in work-scheduling (pp. 133-145). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb18","first-page":"384","volume":"12","author":"Daly, B.J.","year":"1993","journal-title":"Heart & Lung"},{"key":"atypb19","volume-title":"The psychology of vigilance","author":"Davies, D.R.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb20","volume-title":"The psychology of perception","author":"Dember, W.N.","year":"1979","edition":"2"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2006.03.006"},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.00046"},{"key":"atypb23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62382-1"},{"key":"atypb24","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual Meeting","author":"Finomore, V.S."},{"key":"atypb25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900605"},{"key":"atypb26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088102300610"},{"key":"atypb27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(71)90038-2"},{"key":"atypb28","first-page":"13","volume":"19","author":"Frankenhaeuser, M.","year":"1964","journal-title":"Perceptual and Motor Skills"},{"key":"atypb29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0046142"},{"key":"atypb30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089303500402"},{"key":"atypb31","first-page":"14","volume":"8","author":"Gill, G.W.","year":"1996","journal-title":"Advance for Medical Laboratory Professionals"},{"key":"atypb32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/hfes.45.3.349.27253"},{"key":"atypb33","unstructured":"Hancock, P.A. (1984). Environmental stressors. In J. S. Warm (Ed.), Sustained attention in human performance (pp. 103-142). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb34","volume-title":"Essays on the future of human-machine systems","author":"Hancock, P.A.","year":"1997"},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/106480460201000103"},{"key":"atypb36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088903100503"},{"key":"atypb37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hart, S.G. & Staveland, L.E. (1988). Development of NASA-TLX (task load index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. In P. A. Hancock & N. Meshkati (Eds.), Human mental workload (pp. 139-183). Oxford, UK: North-Holland.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9"},{"key":"atypb38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-6870(89)90003-3"},{"key":"atypb39","first-page":"18","volume":"11","author":"Hawley, J.K.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Field Artillery"},{"key":"atypb40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA431964"},{"key":"atypb41","first-page":"126","volume":"14","author":"Head, H.","year":"1923","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"atypb42","volume-title":"Aphasias and kindred disorders of speech","author":"Head, H.","year":"1926"},{"key":"atypb43","unstructured":"Heilman, K.M. (1995). Attentional asymmetries. In R. J. Davidson & K. Hugdahl (Eds.), Brain asymmetry (pp. 217-234). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press."},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-999-1006-2"},{"key":"atypb45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1348\/000712605X38369"},{"key":"atypb46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390600814757"},{"key":"atypb47","unstructured":"Jerison, H.J. (1963). On the decrement function in human vigilance. In D. N. Buckner & J. J. McGrath (Eds.), Vigilance: A symposium (pp. 199-216). New York: McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"atypb48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872086300500305"},{"key":"atypb49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872086500700204"},{"key":"atypb50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483328768"},{"key":"atypb51","first-page":"272","volume":"10","author":"Johnson, R.F.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Pennington Center Nutrition Series"},{"key":"atypb52","volume-title":"Attention and effort","author":"Kahneman, D.","year":"1973"},{"key":"atypb53","unstructured":"Loeb, M. & Alluisi, E.A. (1984). Theories of vigilance. In J. S. Warm (Ed.), Sustained attention in human performance (pp. 179-205). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2005.03.014"},{"key":"atypb55","volume-title":"Pituitary-adrenal and sympathetic-adrenal correlates of distress and effort (Report 548)","author":"Lundberg, U.","year":"1979"},{"key":"atypb56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-2529-1"},{"key":"atypb57","unstructured":"Mackie, R.R. (1984). Research relevance and the information glut. In F. Muckler (Ed.), Human factors review (pp. 1-11). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society."},{"key":"atypb58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900610"},{"key":"atypb59","volume-title":"Vigilance and attention","author":"Mackworth, J.F.","year":"1970"},{"key":"atypb60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17470214808416738"},{"key":"atypb61","first-page":"174","author":"Mackworth, N.H.","year":"1961","journal-title":"Medical Research Council Special Report Series"},{"key":"atypb62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(98)00127-4"},{"key":"atypb63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.2.4.315"},{"key":"atypb64","volume-title":"Human performance: Cognition, stress and individual differences","author":"Matthews, G.","year":"2000"},{"key":"atypb65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthews, G., Joyner, L., Gilliland, K., Campbell, S.E., Falconer, S. & Huggins, J. (1999). Validation of a comprehensive stress state questionnaire: Towards a state \"Big Three.\" In I. Mervielde , I. J. Dreary, F. DeFruyt, & F. Ostendorf (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 335-350). Tilburg, the Netherlands: Tilburg University Press .","DOI":"10.1037\/t27031-000"},{"key":"atypb66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08995600701323392"},{"key":"atypb67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089606380211"},{"key":"atypb68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-650353-1.50016-2"},{"key":"atypb69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.91.2.216"},{"key":"atypb70","volume-title":"Looking ahead: Human factors challenges in a changing world","author":"Nickerson, R.S.","year":"1992"},{"key":"atypb71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6836276"},{"key":"atypb72","unstructured":"O'Donnell, R.D. & Eggemeier, F.T. (1986). Workload assessment methodology . In K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman, & J. P. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of human performance: Vol. II. Cognitive processes and performance (pp. 42-1-42-49). New York : Wiley."},{"key":"atypb73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.150.3695.507"},{"key":"atypb74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.61.4.486"},{"key":"atypb75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.472714"},{"key":"atypb76","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R. (1984a). The psychobiology of sustained attention. In J. S. Warm (Ed.), Sustained attention in human performance (pp. 61-101). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb77","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R. (1984b). Sustained attention in detection and discrimination . In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 243-271). Orlando, FL: Academic Press."},{"key":"atypb78","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R. (1986). Vigilance, monitoring and search. In K. R. Boff, L. Kaufman , & J. P. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of human perception and performance: Vol. II. Cognitive processes and performance (pp. 41-1-41-49). New York: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900609"},{"key":"atypb80","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R. & Caggiano, D. (2005). Neural and genetic assays of mental workload. In D. McBride & D. Schmorrow (Eds.), Quantifying human information processing (pp. 123-155). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield."},{"key":"atypb81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R. & Davies, D.R. (1977). A taxonomic analysis of vigilance. In R. R. Mackie (Ed.), Vigilance: Theory, operational performance, and physiological correlates (pp. 559-574). New York: Plenum.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-2529-1_26"},{"key":"atypb82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872097778543886"},{"key":"atypb83","volume-title":"Neuroergonomics: The brain at work","author":"Parasuraman, R.","year":"2007"},{"key":"atypb84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R., Warm, J.S. & Dember, W.N. (1987). Vigilance: Taxonomy and utility. In L. S. Mark, J. S.Warm , & R. L. Huston (Eds.), Ergonomics and human factors: Recent research (pp. 11-32). New York: Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-4756-2_2"},{"key":"atypb85","unstructured":"Parasuraman, R., Warm, J.S. & See, J.E. (1998). Brain systems of vigilance. In R. Parasuraman (Ed.), The attentive brain (pp. 221-256). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press."},{"key":"atypb86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X288349"},{"key":"atypb87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1997.9.3.392"},{"key":"atypb88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872095779049291"},{"key":"atypb89","volume-title":"Human factors in simple and complex systems","author":"Proctor, R.W.","year":"1994"},{"key":"atypb90","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual Meeting","author":"Reinerman, L.E."},{"key":"atypb91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(97)00015-8"},{"key":"atypb92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/per.451"},{"key":"atypb93","author":"Sanquist, T.F.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part C: Applications and Reviews"},{"key":"atypb94","volume-title":"Cockpit monitoring and alerting systems","author":"Satchell, P.M.","year":"1993"},{"key":"atypb95","unstructured":"Schmidtke, H. (1976). Vigilance. In E. Simpson & P. C. Weiser (Eds.), Psychological and physiological correlates of work and fatigue (pp. 193-219). Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas."},{"key":"atypb96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.2.230"},{"key":"atypb97","first-page":"140","volume":"6","author":"Sheridan, T.","year":"1970","journal-title":"SSC-"},{"key":"atypb98","unstructured":"Sheridan, T. (1980). Supervisory control. In G. Salvendy (Ed.), Handbook of human factors (pp. 1243-1268). New York: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb99","volume-title":"Investigating human error: Incidents, accidents, and complex systems","author":"Strauch, B.","year":"2002"},{"key":"atypb100","unstructured":"Szalma, J.L., Miller, L.C., Hitchcock, E.M., Dember, W.N. & Warm, J.S. (1999). Intraclass and interclass transfer in training for vigilance. In M. W. Scerbo & M. Mouloua (Eds.), Automation technology and human performance: Current research and trends (pp. 183-187). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/hfes.46.2.219.37334"},{"key":"atypb102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087401600402"},{"key":"atypb103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872000779656480"},{"key":"atypb104","volume-title":"Cerebralvascular disorders","author":"Toole, J.F.","year":"1984","edition":"3"},{"key":"atypb105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tripp, L.D. & Warm, J.S. (2007). Transcranial Doppler sonography. In R. Parasuraman & M. Rizzo (Eds.), Neuroergonomics: The brain at work (pp. 82-94). New York: Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195177619.003.0006"},{"key":"atypb106","unstructured":"Warm, J.S. (1984a). An introduction to vigilance. In J. S. Warm (Ed.), Sustained attention in human performance (pp. 1-14). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb107","volume-title":"Sustained attention in human performance","author":"Warm, J. S.","year":"1984"},{"key":"atypb108","unstructured":"Warm, J.S. (1993). Vigilance and target detection. In C. D. Wickens & B. M. Huey (Eds.), Workload transition: Implications for individual and team performance (pp. 139-170). Washington, DC: National Research Council."},{"key":"atypb109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/10290-004"},{"key":"atypb110","unstructured":"Warm, J.S., Dember, W.N. & Hancock, P.A. (1996). Vigilance and workload in automated systems. In R. Parasuraman & M. Mouloua (Eds.), Automation and human performance: Theory and applications (pp. 183-200). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb111","unstructured":"Warm, J.S. & Jerison, H.J. (1984). The psychophysics of vigilance. In J. S. Warm (Ed.), Sustained attention in human performance (pp. 15-59). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb112","unstructured":"Warm, J.S., Matthews, G. & Finomore, V.S. (2008). Workload, stress, and vigilance. In P. A. Hancock & J. L. Szalma (Eds.), Performance under stress (pp. 115-141). Brookfield, VT: Ashgate."},{"key":"atypb113","first-page":"29","year":"1987","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"key":"atypb114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warm, J.S. & Parasuraman, R. (2007). Cerebral hemodynamics and vigilance. In R. Parasuraman & M. Rizzo (Eds.), Neuroergonomics: The brain at work (pp. 146-158). New York: Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195177619.003.0010"},{"key":"atypb115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-199011000-00030"},{"key":"atypb116","volume-title":"Fundamentals of skill","author":"Welford, A.T.","year":"1968"},{"key":"atypb117","unstructured":"Wickens, C.D. (1984). Processing resources in attention. In R. Parasuraman & D. R. Davies (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 63-102). Orlando, FL: Academic Press."},{"key":"atypb118","volume-title":"Engineering psychology and human performance","author":"Wickens, C.D.","year":"2000","edition":"3"},{"key":"atypb119","unstructured":"Wiener, E.L. (1984). Vigilance and inspection. In J. S. Warm (Ed.), Sustained attention in human performance (pp. 207-246). Chichester, UK: Wiley."},{"key":"atypb120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088702900611"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1518\/001872008X312152","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1518\/001872008X312152","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T19:07:28Z","timestamp":1741633648000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1518\/001872008X312152"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2008,6]]},"references-count":120,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,6]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1518\/001872008X312152"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1518\/001872008x312152","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.3410\/f.1159457.619823","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2008,6]]}}}