{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T22:39:03Z","timestamp":1769812743502,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1998,6,1]],"date-time":"1998-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":896659200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1998,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> This research examined two factors involved in the evaluation of pictorial symbol comprehension: context (absence vs. presence of photographs depicting the probable environments where a symbol would be seen) and test method (multiple-choice with less vs. more plausible distractor alternatives vs. open-ended). We tested 33 pictorial symbols from various sources. The results showed that the multiple-choice test with less plausible distractors inflated comprehension scores by an average of 30% compared with the other two tests, which did not differ. The presence of context increased symbol comprehension in the open-ended test and in the multiple-choice test that had more plausible distractors. Extensive preliminary procedures demonstrated the difficulty of forming a multiple-choice test with plausible distractor alternatives. This fact, combined with multiple-choice tests\u2032 low ecological validity in reflecting the real-world task of symbol comprehension, suggests that this test should be avoided in favor of an open-ended testing procedure. It is suggested that context provides ecologically valid cues that limit the range of possible constructs that the pictorial symbol could be, raising comprehension scores. The use of context may help reduce the costs (money, time, effort) of producing pictorial symbols with acceptable, above-criterion comprehension levels. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779480433","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,1,13]],"date-time":"2007-01-13T15:25:31Z","timestamp":1168701931000},"page":"173-186","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":115,"title":["Comprehension of Pictorial Symbols: Effects of Context and Test Method"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Jennifer Snow","family":"Wolff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia"}]},{"given":"Michael S.","family":"Wogalter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1998,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","volume-title":"Accredited standard on safety colors, signs, symbols, labels, and tags, Z535.1\u20135","author":"American National Standards Institute (ANSI).","year":"1991"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0033776"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boersema, T. & Zwaga, H. J. G. (1989). Selecting comprehensible warning symbols for swimming pool slides. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting (pp. 994\u2013998). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.","DOI":"10.1177\/154193128903301520"},{"key":"atypb4","unstructured":"Brugger, C. (1994). Public information symbols: A comparison of ISO testing procedures. In Proceedings of Public Graphics (pp. 26.1\u201326.10) Utrecht, Netherlands: University of Utrecht, Department of Psychonomics."},{"key":"atypb5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0076624"},{"key":"atypb6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6028\/NBS.IR.83-2732"},{"key":"atypb7","first-page":"24.1","volume-title":"Proceedings of Public Graphics","author":"Dewar, R.","year":"1994"},{"key":"atypb8","unstructured":"Dewar, R. & Arthur, P. (1994). Warning of water safety hazards with cartoon images. In Proceedings of Public Graphics (pp. 7.1\u20137.10). Utrecht, Netherlands: University of Utrecht, Department of Psychonomics."},{"key":"atypb9","volume-title":"The development and testing of warnings for automotive lifts","author":"Eberhard, J.","year":"1988"},{"key":"atypb10","first-page":"271","volume":"11","author":"Goldhaber, G. M.","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of Products Liability"},{"key":"atypb11","volume-title":"International standard for safety colours and safety signs: ISO 3864","author":"International Standards Organization (ISO).","year":"1984"},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326977ea0204_2"},{"key":"atypb13","unstructured":"Laux, L. F., Mayer, D. L. & Thompson, N. B. (1989). Usefulness of symbols and pictorials to communicate hazard information. In Proceedings of Interface 1989 (pp. 79\u201383). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society."},{"key":"atypb14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6028\/NBS.IR.80-2088"},{"key":"atypb15","unstructured":"Magurno, A., Wogalter, M. S., Kohake, J. & Wolff, J. S. (1994). Iterative test and development of pharmaceutical pictorials. In Proceedings of the 12th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (Vol. 4, pp. 360\u2013362). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Human Factors Association of Canada."},{"key":"atypb16","volume-title":"Paper presented at the Second International Conference on the Practical Aspects of Memory","author":"Neisser, U."},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197524"},{"key":"atypb18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silver, N. C., Wogalter, M. S., Brewster, B. M., Glover, B. L., Murray, L. A., Tillotson, C. A. & Temple, T. L. (1995). Comprehension and perceived quality of warning symbols. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39th Annual Meeting (pp. 1057\u20131061). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.","DOI":"10.1177\/154193129503901520"},{"key":"atypb19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(66)80048-8","volume":"5","author":"Tulving, E.","year":"1964","journal-title":"Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior"},{"key":"atypb20","volume-title":"\u201cPharmaceutical icon symbols.\u201d","author":"United States Pharmacopoeial Convention","year":"1993"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vukelich, M. & Whitaker, L. A. (1993). The effects of context on the comprehension of graphic symbols. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting (pp. 511\u2013515). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.","DOI":"10.1177\/154193129303700804"},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wogalter, M. S. & Marwitz, D. B. (1987). The effect of selecting multiple-choice distractor items around a single target alternative. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting (pp. 378\u2013381). Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.","DOI":"10.1177\/154193128703100324"},{"key":"atypb23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.2350060508"},{"key":"atypb24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/001401397188017"},{"key":"atypb25","volume-title":"Paper to be presented at the American Psychological Association meeting","author":"Wogalter, M. S."},{"key":"atypb26","volume-title":"A study of context and test method in evaluating safety symbols","author":"Wolff, J. S.","year":"1995"},{"key":"atypb27","unstructured":"Wolff, J. S. & Wogalter, M. S. (1993). Test and development of pharmaceutical pictorials. In Proceedings of Interface 1993 (pp. 187\u2013192). 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