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Balance is governed by brainstem circuits, with higher-order centers like the cortex or basal ganglia becoming engaged as challenge increases or balance health declines. We previously showed that parallel sensorimotor feedback loops engaging brainstem and cortical circuitry contribute to muscle activity for balance control in young adults (YAs). Here, we analyze data from male and female older adults (OAs) with and without PD, decomposing perturbation-evoked tibialis anterior and medial gastrocnemius muscle activity into hierarchical components based on latencies of feedback control loops. We found that balance-correcting muscle activity followed a stereotypical waveform of long-latency responses (LLRs): LLR1 began \u223c120 ms and LLR2 occurred \u223c210 ms, respectively, consistent with subcortical and cortical feedback latencies. Both LLRs increased with balance challenge and could be explained by center of mass kinematics. Perturbation-evoked antagonist muscle activity consisted of destabilizing and stabilizing components categorized based on whether they resist the kinematic errors that drive their activation. The destabilizing component occurred at \u223c180 ms and was negatively correlated with clinical measures of balance ability in the OA but not PD group. Exploratory comparisons showed OA and PD groups had larger LLR2s at lower challenge levels than YAs, consistent with greater cortical engagement during balance with aging. These findings demonstrate that a neuromechanical model can decompose perturbation-evoked muscle activity into hierarchical components related to clinical balance ability and identify mechanistic changes in the neural control of balance without direct brain measurements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1523\/eneuro.0423-25.2026","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T17:50:21Z","timestamp":1774288221000},"page":"ENEURO.0423-25.2026","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/eneuro.crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Cortically Mediated Muscle Responses to Balance Perturbations Increase with Perturbation Magnitude in Older Adults with and without Parkinson's Disease"],"prefix":"10.1523","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8246-5095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Scott E.","family":"Boebinger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aiden M.","family":"Payne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jifei","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Martino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9897-9867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael R.","family":"Borich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Lucas McKay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lena H.","family":"Ting","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"393","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026040111250803000_13.4.ENEURO.0423-25.2026.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/95.4.795"},{"key":"2026040111250803000_13.4.ENEURO.0423-25.2026.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.36.3.329"},{"key":"2026040111250803000_13.4.ENEURO.0423-25.2026.3","unstructured":"Basmajian JV (1980) Electrode placement in EMG biofeedback . 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