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Neurosci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,18]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with amyloidosis and dysfunction of the cholinergic system, which is crucial for learning and memory. However, the nature of acetylcholine signaling within regions of cholinergic-dependent plasticity and how it changes with experience is poorly understood, much less the impact of amyloidosis on this signaling. Therefore, we optically measure the release profile of acetylcholine to unexpected, predicted, and predictive events in visual cortex (VC)\u2014a site of known cholinergic-dependent plasticity\u2014in a preclinical mouse model of AD that develops amyloidosis. We find that acetylcholine exhibits reinforcement signaling qualities, reporting behaviorally relevant outcomes and displaying release profiles to predictive and predicted events that change as a consequence of experience. We identify three stages of amyloidosis occurring before the degeneration of cholinergic synapses within VC and observe that cholinergic responses in amyloid-bearing mice become impaired over these stages, diverging progressively from age- and sex-matched littermate controls. In particular, amyloidosis degrades the signaling of unexpected rewards and punishments, and attenuates the experience-dependent (1) increase of cholinergic responses to outcome predictive visual cues, and (2) decrease of cholinergic responses to predicted outcomes. Hyperactive spontaneous acetylcholine release occurring transiently at the onset of impaired cholinergic signaling is also observed, further implicating disrupted cholinergic activity as an early functional biomarker in AD. Our findings suggest that acetylcholine acts as a reinforcement signal that is impaired by amyloidosis before pathologic degeneration of the cholinergic system, providing a deeper understanding of the effects of amyloidosis on acetylcholine signaling and informing future interventions for AD.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT<\/jats:bold>The cholinergic system is especially vulnerable to the neurotoxic effects of amyloidosis, a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Though amyloid-induced cholinergic synaptic loss is thought in part to account for learning and memory impairments in AD, little is known regarding how amyloid impacts signaling of the cholinergic system before its anatomic degeneration. Optical measurement of acetylcholine (ACh) release in a mouse model of AD that develops amyloidosis reveals that ACh signals reinforcement and outcome prediction that is disrupted by amyloidosis before cholinergic degeneration. These observations have important scientific and clinical implications: they implicate ACh signaling as an early functional biomarker, provide a deeper understanding of the action of acetylcholine, and inform on when and how intervention may best ameliorate cognitive decline in AD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1523\/jneurosci.0967-23.2023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]],"date-time":"2023-08-30T17:50:19Z","timestamp":1693417819000},"page":"6988-7005","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Cholinergic Reinforcement Signaling Is Impaired by Amyloidosis Prior to Its Synaptic Loss"],"prefix":"10.1523","volume":"43","author":[{"given":"Simon","family":"Allard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marshall G.","family":"Hussain Shuler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"393","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2014.04.514"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2012.00079"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2009.12.023"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1144-11.2012"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2010.10.011"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001811"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.20.11219"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/320172a0"},{"key":"2023101810500761000_43.42.6988.9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2008-15213","article-title":"Why do so many drugs for Alzheimer's disease fail in development? 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