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Current theories model speech production as a hierarchy from sentences and phrases down to words, syllables, speech sounds (phonemes), and the actions of vocal tract articulators used to produce speech sounds (articulatory gestures). Here, we investigate the cortical representation of articulatory gestures and phonemes in ventral precentral and inferior frontal gyri in men and women. Our results indicate that ventral precentral cortex represents gestures to a greater extent than phonemes, while inferior frontal cortex represents both gestures and phonemes. These findings suggest that speech production shares a common cortical representation with that of other types of movement, such as arm and hand movements. This has important implications both for our understanding of speech production and for the design of brain\u2013machine interfaces to restore communication to people who cannot speak.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT<\/jats:bold>Despite being studied for decades, the production of speech by the brain is not fully understood. In particular, the most elemental parts of speech, speech sounds (phonemes) and the movements of vocal tract articulators used to produce these sounds (articulatory gestures), have both been hypothesized to be encoded in motor cortex. Using direct cortical recordings, we found evidence that primary motor and premotor cortices represent gestures to a greater extent than phonemes. Inferior frontal cortex (part of Broca's area) appears to represent both gestures and phonemes. These findings suggest that speech production shares a similar cortical organizational structure with the movement of other body parts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1523\/jneurosci.1206-18.2018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,27]],"date-time":"2018-09-27T11:32:05Z","timestamp":1538047925000},"page":"9803-9813","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":96,"title":["Differential Representation of Articulatory Gestures and Phonemes in Precentral and Inferior Frontal Gyri"],"prefix":"10.1523","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Emily M.","family":"Mugler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew C.","family":"Tate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karen","family":"Livescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica W.","family":"Templer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew A.","family":"Goldrick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2269-7729","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc W.","family":"Slutzky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"393","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023041803334330000_38.46.9803.1","unstructured":"Bakovic E (2014) Phonology and phonological theory. 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