{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T01:26:30Z","timestamp":1791941190375,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Bioscientifica","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,1]],"date-time":"2026-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769904000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["etj.bioscientifica.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:inline-graphic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" xlink:href=\"\/journals\/etj\/15\/1\/images\/ETJ-26-0009inf1.jpeg\"\/>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>A simplified figure displaying the main events leading to Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis and Grave\u2019s disease via Th1 and Th2 activation, and the potential sites of selenium (Se) action. (A) Activated by the dendritic cell, na\u00efve helper T cells (CD4+ T cells) can mainly differentiate into two subsets, Th1 and Th2, which are crucial in orchestrating immune responses. Th1 cells produce tumor necrosis factor (TNF-a) along with interferon-\u03b3 (IFN-\u03b3), exacerbating inflammation, in synergy with interleukin-6 (\u0399L-6), leading to apoptosis (death of follicular cells). In parallel, oxidative stress induces activation of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-\u03baB) pathway by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the phosphorylation and degradation of NF-\u03baB inhibitors, thereby allowing NF-\u03ba\u0392 to translocate to the nucleus. NF-\u03baB acts in the nucleus as a master transcription factor in the nucleus, significantly increasing IL-6 production in various cell types. Se supplementation decreases IL-6 production, thereby mitigating the inflammatory process: it activates antioxidant enzymes and increases Treg cells, restoring the balance with Th17 cells. Th2, by producing interleukins, promotes B cell differentiation into plasma cells that produce massive amounts of IgG antibodies, which stimulate the TSH receptor on thyrocytes, promoting thyroid hyperplasia and hyperthyroidism. In mild thyroid eye disease (TED), Se abolishes the effects of oxidative stress in interorbital fibroblasts, reducing hyaluronic acid release, decreasing inflammation, and potentially lowering the production of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). (B) Se enhances selenoprotein P (SELENOP) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity; it is significantly involved in redox processes within the thyrocytes, scavenging H2O2, and its reactive by-products (e.g. hydroxyl radicals) through oxidation\u2013reduction cycles. GPX neutralizes the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) produced during thyroid hormone synthesis. This process is essential for maintaining a healthy balance (redox homeostasis) within the thyroid gland. The effects are inversely related to basal Se levels.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1530\/etj-26-0009","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T13:26:21Z","timestamp":1770902781000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1530\/crossmarkpolicy-16","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The caprices of a trace element: selenium\u2019s considerable effects on Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis, though few on Graves\u2019 disease"],"prefix":"10.1530","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9133-4089","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Leonidas H","family":"Duntas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Evgenideion Hospital, Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"416","reference":[{"key":"bib1","series-title":"Endocrine","first-page":"756","article-title":"Selenium: an element for life","volume":"48","author":"Duntas LH","year":"2015","unstructured":"Duntas LH\n & \nBenvenga S\n\n. 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