{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T12:34:03Z","timestamp":1778589243041,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,8,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective.<\/jats:title><jats:p>It has not been possible to draw firm conclusions about the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure because of methodologic problems involved in the conduct of this research. This study, designed to overcome some of these methodologic problems, is a prospective, longitudinal investigation of the effects of prenatal cocaine\/crack exposure on neonatal growth in two samples, one with and one without prenatal care (PC).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods.<\/jats:title><jats:p>Women in the PC sample (n = 295) were interviewed at the end of each trimester about their use of cocaine, crack, alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and other drugs. Women in the no prenatal care (NPC) sample (n = 98) were interviewed at delivery about their drug use during each trimester of pregnancy. In both samples, information was also obtained about sociodemographic, lifestyle, psychologic, and social support characteristics. Both samples consisted of women who were predominantly low income, single, and high school educated. Of the women, 48% in the PC sample were black; 81% in the NPC sample were black. Infants were examined during the postpartum hospital stay by project nurses who were blind to maternal substance use status.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results.<\/jats:title><jats:p>Women in both samples who used cocaine\/crack during pregnancy were older, had lower family incomes, and used more alcohol than did women who did not use cocaine\/crack during pregnancy. In addition, women in the NPC sample were more likely to be black, less educated, gained less weight during pregnancy, and used more alcohol than did women in the PC sample, regardless of cocaine use. In both samples, cocaine\/crack use during early pregnancy predicted reduced gestational age, birth weight, length, and head circumference, after controlling for the significant covariates of cocaine use. In a comparison of the samples, the offspring of the NPC\/cocaine group were significantly smaller than were the offspring of the PC\/no cocaine group, whereas the offspring of the PC\/cocaine and NPC\/cocaine groups did not differ.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions.<\/jats:title><jats:p>These results indicate that exposure to cocaine\/crack during early pregnancy decreases the intrauterine growth of exposed offspring in women with and without PC. Each of the growth parameters was affected indicating symmetric growth retardation. The adequacy of PC was not a significant factor in determining the difference between cocaine-exposed and nonexposed infants. These samples are being followed throughout childhood to determine whether there are long-term effects of prenatal cocaine\/crack exposure on growth.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.104.2.e18","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,13]],"date-time":"2004-08-13T23:45:45Z","timestamp":1092440745000},"page":"e18-e18","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":86,"title":["Growth of Infants Prenatally Exposed to Cocaine\/Crack: Comparison of a Prenatal Care and a No Prenatal Care Sample"],"prefix":"10.1542","volume":"104","author":[{"given":"Gale A.","family":"Richardson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"From the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sara C.","family":"Hamel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, Child Development Unit, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine; and"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lidush","family":"Goldschmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nancy L.","family":"Day","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"From the Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic,"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"417","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1999,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021121002565887500_B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.83.2.190","article-title":"The effects of intrauterine cocaine exposure in newborns.","volume":"83","author":"Bateman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B2","first-page":"35","article-title":"Perinatal implications of cocaine exposure.","volume":"35","author":"Burkett","year":"1990","journal-title":"J Reprod Med"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1989.03420120079030","article-title":"Temporal patterns of cocaine use in pregnancy.","volume":"261","author":"Chasnoff","year":"1989","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-8994(93)90045-E","article-title":"Neurologic findings in neonates with intrauterine cocaine exposure.","volume":"9","author":"Chiriboga","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pediatr Neurol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(92)90025-6","article-title":"Effects of cocaine and alcohol use in pregnancy on neonatal growth and neurobehavioral status.","volume":"14","author":"Coles","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(94)90012-4","article-title":"Prenatal cocaine use: a comparison of neonates matched on maternal risk factors.","volume":"16","author":"Eyler","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol."},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.101.2.229","article-title":"Birth outcome from a prospective, matched study of prenatal crack\/cocaine use. I. Interactive and dose effects on health and growth.","volume":"101","author":"Eyler","year":"1998","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(90)90621-D","article-title":"The perinatal impact of cocaine, amphetamine, and opiate use detected by universal intrapartum screening.","volume":"163","author":"Gillogley","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/S0892-0362(96)00131-6","article-title":"Neonatal neurobehavioral outcome following prenatal exposure to cocaine.","volume":"18","author":"Martin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198903233201203","article-title":"Effects of maternal marijuana and cocaine use on fetal growth.","volume":"320","author":"Zuckerman","year":"1989","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(87)90017-1","article-title":"Cocaine use in pregnancy: perinatal morbidity and mortality.","volume":"9","author":"Chasnoff","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.98.4.735","article-title":"Prenatal cocaine and neonatal outcome: evaluation of dose-response relationship.","volume":"98","author":"Delaney-Black","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B13","first-page":"297","article-title":"Natal status of infants of cocaine users and control subjects: a prospective comparison.","volume":"15","author":"Hurt","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Perinatol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(05)81371-X","article-title":"Effects of alcohol use, smoking, and illicit drug use on fetal growth in black infants.","volume":"124","author":"Jacobson","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.77.2.209","article-title":"Maternal cocaine abuse and effect on the newborn.","volume":"77","author":"Madden","year":"1986","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(11)80036-0","article-title":"The biologic and social consequences of perinatal cocaine use in an inner-city population: results of an anonymous cross-sectional study.","volume":"164","author":"McCalla","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.84.9.1492","article-title":"Intrauterine cocaine, lead, and nicotine exposure and fetal growth.","volume":"84","author":"Neuspiel","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(91)90095-E","article-title":"Maternal and neonatal effects of moderate cocaine use during pregnancy.","volume":"13","author":"Richardson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(95)90078-0","article-title":"The impact of cocaine and marijuana use on low birth weight and preterm birth: a multicenter study.","volume":"172","author":"Shiono","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.82.5.726","article-title":"A cohort study of the impact of perinatal drug use on prematurity in an inner-city population.","volume":"82","author":"Feldman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a115961","article-title":"Cocaine use during pregnancy: perinatal outcomes.","volume":"133","author":"Handler","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B22","first-page":"384","article-title":"Pregnancy outcome and infant development following gestational cocaine use by social cocaine users in Toronto, Canada.","volume":"15","author":"Graham","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clin Invest Med"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B23","first-page":"361","article-title":"Brain growth among fetuses exposed to cocaine in utero: asymmetrical growth retardation.","volume":"77","author":"Little","year":"1991","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1097\/00004703-199504000-00002","article-title":"Head growth in cocaine-exposed infants: relationship to neonate hair level.","volume":"16","author":"Sallee","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Dev Behav Pediatr"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1002\/tera.1420440407","article-title":"Relationship between gestational cocaine use and pregnancy outcome: a meta-analysis.","volume":"44","author":"Lutiger","year":"1991","journal-title":"Teratology"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(89)92044-8","article-title":"Bias against the null hypothesis: the reproductive hazards of cocaine.","volume":"2","author":"Koren","year":"1989","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1992.03480030084043","article-title":"The problem of prenatal cocaine exposure: a rush to judgment.","volume":"267","author":"Mayes","year":"1992","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1097\/00003081-199306000-00010","article-title":"The impact of prenatal marijuana and cocaine use on the infant and child.","volume":"36","author":"Richardson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Clin Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.84.3.536","article-title":"Prenatal exposure to alcohol: effect on infant growth and morphologic characteristics.","volume":"84","author":"Day","year":"1989","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(91)90079-C","article-title":"Prenatal marijuana use and neonatal outcome.","volume":"13","author":"Day","year":"1991","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1177\/002204269702700304","article-title":"Data base of studies on prenatal cocaine exposure and child outcome.","volume":"27","author":"Lester","year":"1997","journal-title":"J Drug Issues"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09731.x","article-title":"Regulation of arousal and attention in preschool children exposed to cocaine prenatally.","volume":"846","author":"Mayes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(96)00062-1","article-title":"The effects of prenatal cocaine use on neonatal neurobehavioral status.","volume":"18","author":"Richardson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B34","first-page":"326","article-title":"The relationship between recent cocaine use and pregnancy outcome.","volume":"78","author":"Spence","year":"1991","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1300\/J010v14n03_07","article-title":"Factors associated with not receiving adequate prenatal care in an urban black population: program planning implications.","volume":"14","author":"Ahmed","year":"1990","journal-title":"Soc Work Health Care"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-536X.1991.tb00085.x","article-title":"Prenatal care and prematurity: is there an association in uncomplicated pregnancies?","volume":"18","author":"Hulsey","year":"1991","journal-title":"Birth"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(92)91565-R","article-title":"Drug use or inadequate prenatal care: adverse pregnancy outcome in an urban setting.","volume":"166","author":"Broekhuizen","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0146-0005(05)80044-8","article-title":"Cocaine use during pregnancy and low birth weight: the impact of prenatal care and drug treatment.","volume":"19","author":"Chazotte","year":"1995","journal-title":"Semin Perinatol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B39","first-page":"882","article-title":"Cocaine abuse during pregnancy: correlation between prenatal care and perinatal outcome.","volume":"74","author":"MacGregor","year":"1989","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1581","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1993.03510130087036","article-title":"The association between prenatal care and birth weight among women exposed to cocaine in New York City.","volume":"270","author":"Racine","year":"1993","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1063","DOI":"10.3109\/10826089609072288","article-title":"Effects of prenatal care on neonates born to drug-using women.","volume":"31","author":"Berenson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse."},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199401000-00005","article-title":"Detrimental effects of prenatal cocaine exposure: illusion or reality?","volume":"33","author":"Richardson","year":"1994","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B43"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(76)90748-1","article-title":"A standard of fetal growth for the United States of America.","volume":"126","author":"Brenner","year":"1976","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1989.tb21002.x","article-title":"Methodological issues in the measurement of substance use.","volume":"562","author":"Day","year":"1989","journal-title":"Ann N Y Acad Sci"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B46"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B47"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(79)80734-9","article-title":"A simplified score for assessment of fetal maturation of newly born infants.","volume":"95","author":"Ballard","year":"1979","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(73)90720-5","article-title":"Prenatal and intrapartum high-risk screening. I. Prediction of the high-risk neonate.","volume":"117","author":"Hobel","year":"1973","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.61.3.470","article-title":"Medical correlates of infant development.","volume":"61","author":"Littman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-0025.1977.tb00977.x","article-title":"Birth outcomes in the offspring of mentally disordered women.","volume":"47","author":"Zax","year":"1977","journal-title":"Am J Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B52"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B53"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(91)91433-W","article-title":"Comparison of associated high-risk factors and perinatal outcome between symmetric and asymmetric fetal intrauterine growth retardation.","volume":"164","author":"Lin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am J Obstet Gynecol"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.91.4.778","article-title":"Neurobehavioral profiles of neonates exposed to cocaine prenatally.","volume":"91","author":"Mayes","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021121002565887500_B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/0163-6383(89)90006-4","article-title":"The effect of prenatal alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco exposure on neonatal behavior.","volume":"12","author":"Richardson","year":"1989","journal-title":"Inf Behav Dev"}],"container-title":["Pediatrics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/104\/2\/e18\/843272\/e18.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/104\/2\/e18\/843272\/e18.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,14]],"date-time":"2024-01-14T05:06:11Z","timestamp":1705208771000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article\/104\/2\/e18\/62415\/Growth-of-Infants-Prenatally-Exposed-to-Cocaine"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,8,1]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1999,8,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,8,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.104.2.e18","relation":{},"ISSN":["1098-4275","0031-4005"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1098-4275","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0031-4005","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,8,1]]}}}