{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T20:21:14Z","timestamp":1790972474384,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":127,"publisher":"American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)","issue":"6","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The objectives of this technical report are to describe methods of diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in children younger than 18 months in the United States and to review important issues that must be considered by clinicians who care for infants and young children born to HIV-1\u2013infected women. Appropriate HIV-1 diagnostic testing for infants and children younger than 18 months differs from that for older children, adolescents, and adults because of passively transferred maternal HIV-1 antibodies, which may be detectable in the child's bloodstream until 18 months of age. Therefore, routine serologic testing of these infants and young children is generally only informative before the age of 18 months if the test result is negative. Virologic assays, including HIV-1 DNA or RNA assays, represent the gold standard for diagnostic testing of infants and children younger than 18 months. With such testing, the diagnosis of HIV-1 infection (as well as the presumptive exclusion of HIV-1 infection) can be established within the first several weeks of life among nonbreastfed infants. Important factors that must be considered when selecting HIV-1 diagnostic assays for pediatric patients and when choosing the timing of such assays include the age of the child, potential timing of infection of the child, whether the infection status of the child's mother is known or unknown, the antiretroviral exposure history of the mother and of the child, and characteristics of the virus. If the mother's HIV-1 serostatus is unknown, rapid HIV-1 antibody testing of the newborn infant to identify HIV-1 exposure is essential so that antiretroviral prophylaxis can be initiated within the first 12 hours of life if test results are positive. For HIV-1\u2013exposed infants (identified by positive maternal test results or positive antibody results for the infant shortly after birth), it has been recommended that diagnostic testing with HIV-1 DNA or RNA assays be performed within the first 14 days of life, at 1 to 2 months of age, and at 3 to 6 months of age. If any of these test results are positive, repeat testing is recommended to confirm the diagnosis of HIV-1 infection. A diagnosis of HIV-1 infection can be made on the basis of 2 positive HIV-1 DNA or RNA assay results. In nonbreastfeeding children younger than 18 months with no positive HIV-1 virologic test results, presumptive exclusion of HIV-1 infection can be based on 2 negative virologic test results (1 obtained at \u22652 weeks and 1 obtained at \u22654 weeks of age); 1 negative virologic test result obtained at \u22658 weeks of age; or 1 negative HIV-1 antibody test result obtained at \u22656 months of age. Alternatively, presumptive exclusion of HIV-1 infection can be based on 1 positive HIV-1 virologic test with at least 2 subsequent negative virologic test results (at least 1 of which is performed at \u22658 weeks of age) or negative HIV-1 antibody test results (at least 1 of which is performed at \u22656 months of age). Definitive exclusion of HIV-1 infection is based on 2 negative virologic test results, 1 obtained at \u22651 month of age and 1 obtained at \u22654 months of age, or 2 negative HIV-1 antibody test results from separate specimens obtained at \u22656 months of age. For both presumptive and definitive exclusion of infection, the child should have no other laboratory (eg, no positive virologic test results) or clinical (eg, no AIDS-defining conditions) evidence of HIV-1 infection. Many clinicians confirm the absence of HIV-1 infection with a negative HIV-1 antibody assay result at 12 to 18 months of age. For breastfeeding infants, a similar testing algorithm can be followed, with timing of testing starting from the date of complete cessation of breastfeeding instead of the date of birth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-2951","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,30]],"date-time":"2007-11-30T12:33:39Z","timestamp":1196426019000},"page":"e1547-e1562","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":102,"title":["Diagnosis of HIV-1 Infection in Children Younger Than 18 Months in the United States"],"prefix":"10.1542","volume":"120","author":[{"given":"Jennifer S.","family":"Read","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"and the Committee on Pediatric AIDS","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"417","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021120902001846200_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Read JS. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. In: Zeichner SL, Read JS, eds. Textbook of Pediatric HIV Care. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2005","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511544798.011"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, Lee FK. Understanding the timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. JAMA.\u20082001;285:709\u2013712","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.285.6.709"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R3","unstructured":"Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group. N Engl J Med.\u20081994;331:1173\u20131180"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, et al. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1-infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. Women and Infants' Transmission Study Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082002;29:484\u2013494","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200204150-00009"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaffer N, Chuachoowong R, Mock PA, et al. Short-course zidovudine for perinatal HIV-1 transmission in Bangkok, Thailand: a randomised controlled trial. Bangkok Collaborative Perinatal HIV Transmission Study Group. Lancet.\u20081999;353:773\u2013780","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)10411-7"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiktor SZ, Ekpini E, Karon JM, et al. Short-course zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire : a randomised trial. Lancet.\u20081999;353:781\u2013785","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)10412-9"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dabis F, Msellati P, Meda N, et al. 6-month efficacy, tolerance, and acceptability of a short regimen of oral zidovudine to reduce vertical transmission of HIV in breastfed children in Cote d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso: a double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre trial. DITRAME Study Group. Lancet.\u20081999;353:786\u2013792","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)11046-2"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, et al. A trial of shortened zidovudine regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial (Thailand) Investigators. N Engl J Med.\u20082000;343:982\u2013991","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200010053431401"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson JB, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: 18-month follow-up of the HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet.\u20082003;362:859\u2013868","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)14341-3"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petra Study Team. Efficacy of three short-course regimens of zidovudine and lamivudine in preventing early and late transmission of HIV-1 from mother to child in Tanzania, South Africa, and Uganda (Petra study): a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet.\u20082002;359:1178\u20131186","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)08214-4"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moodley D, Moodley J, Coovadia H, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of nevirapine versus a combination of zidovudine and lamivudine to reduce intrapartum and early postpartum mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. South African Intrapartum Nevirapine Trial (SAINT) Investigators. J Infect Dis.\u20082003;187:725\u2013735","DOI":"10.1086\/367898"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarean section versus vaginal delivery in preventing vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet.\u20081999;353:1035\u20131039","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)08084-2"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nduati R, John G, Mbori-Ngacha D, et al. Effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on transmission of HIV-1: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA.\u20082000;283:1167\u20131174","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.283.9.1167"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindegren ML, Byers RH Jr, Thomas P, et al. Trends in perinatal transmission of HIV\/AIDS in the United States. JAMA.\u20081999;282:531\u2013538","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.282.6.531"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R15","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV\/AIDS surveillance report, 2005, volume 17. Available at: www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/topics\/surveillance\/resources\/reports\/2005report\/default.htm. Accessed October 29, 2007"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R16","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cases of HIV infection and AIDS in the United States, 2004. Available at: www.cdc.gov\/hiv\/topics\/surveillance\/resources\/reports\/2004report\/default.htm. Accessed October 29, 2007"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R17","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) WHO\/CDC case definition for surveillance. Wkly Epidemiol Rec.\u20081986;61:69\u201373"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R18","unstructured":"World Health Organization. AIDS: 1987 revision of CDC\/WHO case definition. Bull World Health Organ.\u20081988;66:259\u2013263, 269\u2013273"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R19","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease. Wkly Epidemiol Rec.\u20081990;65:221\u2013224"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R20","unstructured":"World Health Organization. WHO case definitions for AIDS surveillance in adults and adolescents. Wkly Epidemiol Rec.\u20081994;69:273\u2013275"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R21","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Scaling up Antiretroviral Therapy in Resource-Limited Settings: Treatment Guidelines for a Public Health Approach. 2003 Revision. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2004. Available at: www.who.int\/hiv\/pub\/prev_care\/en\/arvrevision2003en.pdf. Accessed October 29, 2007"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R22","unstructured":"World Health Organization, Division of Diarrhoeal and Acute Respiratory Disease Control. Integrated management of the sick child. Bull World Health Organ.\u20081995;73:735\u2013740"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lepage P, van der Perre P, Dabis F, et al. Evaluation and simplification of the World Health Organization clinical case definition for paediatric AIDS. AIDS.\u20081989;3:221\u2013225","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-198904000-00005"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R24","unstructured":"Horwood C, Liebeschuetz S, Blaauw D, Cassol S, Qazi S. Diagnosis of paediatric HIV infection in a primary health care setting with a clinical algorithm. Bull World Health Organ.\u20082003;81:858\u2013866"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R25","unstructured":"Jones SA, Sherman GG, Coovadia AH. Can clinical algorithms deliver an accurate diagnosis of HIV infection in infancy?Bull World Health Organ.\u20082005;83:559\u2013560"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R26","unstructured":"World Health Organization. WHO case definitions of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related disease in adults and children. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2006. Available at: www.who.int\/hiv\/pub\/guidelines\/hivstaging\/en. Accessed October 29, 2007"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R27","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control. Revision of the CDC surveillance case definition for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists, AIDS Program, Center for Infectious Diseases. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.\u20081987;36(suppl 1):1S\u201315S"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R28","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control. Classification system for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in children under 13 years of age. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.\u20081987;36:225\u2013230, 235\u2013236"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R29","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control. 1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. MMWR Recomm Rep.\u20081992;41(RR-17):1\u201319"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R30","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1994 revised classification system for human immunodeficiency virus infection in children less than 13 years of age. MMWR Recomm Rep.\u20081994;43(RR-12):1\u201310"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connick E. Incomplete antibody evolution and seroreversion after treatment of primary HIV type 1 infection: what is the clinical significance?Clin Infect Dis.\u20082005;40:874\u2013875","DOI":"10.1086\/428131"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R32","unstructured":"Hoffman C, Rockstroh JK, Kamps BS, eds. HIV Medicine 2006. Paris, France: Flying Publisher; 2006. Available at: www.HIVMedicine.com. Accessed: October 6, 2006"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R33","unstructured":"Constantine NT, Callahan JD, Watts DM. Retroviral Testing: Essentials for Quality Control and Laboratory Diagnosis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1992"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greenwald JL, Burstein GR, Pincus J, Branson B. A rapid review of rapid HIV antibody tests. Curr Infect Dis Rep.\u20082006;8:125\u2013131","DOI":"10.1007\/s11908-006-0008-6"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R35","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Notice to readers: protocols for confirmation of reactive HIV tests. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.\u20082004;53(10):221\u2013222"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirinavin S, Atamasirikul K. Semiquantitative human immunodeficiency virus antibody tests in diagnosis of vertical infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082000;19:1153\u20131157","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-200012000-00006"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R37","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interpretation and use of the Western blot assay for serodiagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infections. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep.\u20081989;38(suppl 7):1\u20137"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shearer WT, Easley KA, Goldfarb J, et al. Prospective 5-year study of peripheral blood CD4, CD8, and CD19\/CD20 lymphocytes and serum Igs in children born to HIV-1 women. The P(2)C(2) HIV Study Group. J Allergy Clin Immunol.\u20082000;106:559\u2013566","DOI":"10.1067\/mai.2000.109433"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rouet F, Inwoley A, Ekouevi DK, et al. CD4 percentages and total lymphocyte counts as early surrogate markers for pediatrics HIV-1 infection in resource-limited settings. ANRS 1201\/1202 Ditrame Plus Study Group. J Trop Pediatr.\u20082006;52:346\u2013354","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/fml024"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zijenah LS, Katzenstein DA, Nathoo KJ, et al. T lymphocytes among HIV-infected and -uninfected infants: CD4\/CD8 ratio as a potential tool in diagnosis of infection in infants under the age of 2 years. J Transl Med.\u20082005;3:6","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-3-6"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Read JS, Pahwa S, Yin W, et al. CD4\/CD8 ratio for diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in infants: the Women and Infants Transmission Study. Presented at The 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, February 25\u201328, 2007; Los Angeles, California. Abstract 686","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-2308"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R42","unstructured":"Swaminathan S, Gangadevi P, Perumal V, et al. CD4\/CD8 ratio as a surrogate marker for HIV infection in infancy. Presented at The 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, February 25\u201328, 2007; Los Angeles, California. Abstract 685"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shearer WT, Pahwa S, Read JS, et al. CD4\/CD8 T-cell ratio predicts HIV infection in infants: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute P(2)C(2) study. J Allergy Clin Immunol.\u20082007;123:S46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2007.03.307"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambert JS, Moye J Jr, Plaeger SF, et al. Association of selected phenotypic markers of lymphocyte activation and differentiation with perinatal human immunodeficiency virus transmission and infant infection. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol.\u20082005;12:622\u2013631","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.12.5.622-631.2005"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peterlin BM, Luciw PA. Replication of the human immunodeficiency virus: strategies for inhibition. Biotechnology.\u20081988;6:794\u2013799","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt0788-794"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hollinger FB, Bremer JW, Myers LE, Gold JW, McQuay L. Standardization of sensitive human immunodeficiency virus coculture procedures and establishment of a multicenter quality assurance program for the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. The NIH\/NIAID\/DAIDS\/ACTG Virology Labs. J Clin Microbiol.\u20081992;30:1787\u20131794","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.30.7.1787-1794.1992"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krivine A, Yakudima A, Le May M, Pena-Cruz V, Huang AS, McIntosh K. A comparative study of virus isolation, polymerase chain reaction, and antigen detection in children of mothers infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr.\u20081990;116:372\u2013376","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(05)82823-9"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Rossi A, Ades AE, Mammano F, Del Mistro A, Amadori A, Giaquinto C, Chieco-Bianchi L. Antigen detection, virus culture, polymerase chain reaction, and in vitro antibody production in the diagnosis of vertically transmitted HIV-1 infection. AIDS.\u20081991;5:15\u201320","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199101000-00002"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgard M, Mayaux MJ, Blanche S, et al. The use of viral culture and p24 antigen testing to diagnose human immunodeficiency virus infection in neonates. HIV Infection in Newborns French Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med.\u20081992;327:1192\u20131197","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199210223271702"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borkowsky W, Krasinski K, Pollack H, Hoover W, Kaul A, Ilmet-Moore T. Early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection in children less than 6 months of age: comparison of polymerase chain reaction, culture, and plasma antigen capture techniques. J Infect Dis.\u20081992;166:616\u2013619","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/166.3.616"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kline MW, Lewis DE, Hollinger FB, et al. A comparative study of human immunodeficiency virus culture, polymerase chain reaction and anti-human immunodeficiency virus immunoglobulin A antibody detection in the diagnosis during early infancy of vertically acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20081994;13:90\u201394","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199402000-00002"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambert JS, Harris DR, Stiehm ER, et al. Performance characteristics of HIV-1 culture and HIV-1 DNA and RNA amplification assays for early diagnosis of perinatal HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082003;34:512\u2013519","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200312150-00011"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rogers MF, Ou CY, Rayfield M, et al. Use of the polymerase chain reaction for early detection of the proviral sequences of human immunodeficiency virus in infants born to seropositive mothers. New York City Collaborative Study of Maternal HIV Transmission and Montefiore Medical Center HIV Perinatal Transmission Study Group. N Engl J Med.\u20081989;320:1649\u20131654","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198906223202503"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R54","unstructured":"Sninsky JJ, Kwok S. Detection of human immunodeficiency viruses by the polymerase chain reaction. Arch Pathol Lab Med.\u20081990;114:259\u2013262"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kovacs A, Xu J, Rasheed S, et al. Comparison of a rapid nonisotopic polymerase chain reaction assay with four commonly used methods for the early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in neonates and children. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20081995;14:948\u2013954","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199511000-00005"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bremer JW, Lew JF, Cooper E, et al. Diagnosis of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by a DNA polymerase chain reaction assay among infants enrolled in the Women and Infants' Transmission Study. J Pediatr.\u20081996;129:198\u2013207","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(96)70243-3"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R57","unstructured":"Kuhn L, Abrams EJ, Chinchilla M, Tsai WY, Thea DM. Sensitivity of HIV-1 DNA polymerase chain reaction in the neonatal period. New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study Group. AIDS.\u20081996;10:1181\u20131182"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelson RP Jr, Price LJ, Halsey AB, et al. Diagnosis of pediatric human immunodeficiency virus infection by means of a commercially available polymerase chain reaction gene amplification. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med.\u20081996;150:40\u201345","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1996.02170260044007"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunningham CK, Charbonneau TT, Song K, et al. Comparison of human immunodeficiency virus 1 DNA polymerase chain reaction and qualitative and quantitative RNA polymerase chain reaction in human immunodeficiency virus 1-exposed infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20081999;18:30\u201335","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199901000-00009"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R60","unstructured":"Puthanakit T, Apichartpiyakul C, Sirisanthana V. An in-house HIV DNA PCR assay for early diagnosis of HIV infection in children in Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai.\u20082003;86:758\u2013765"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherman GG, Cooper PA, Coovadia AH, et al. Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection in infancy in low resource settings. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082005;24:993\u2013997","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000187036.73539.8d"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherman GG, Stevens G, Jones SA, Horsfield P, Stevens WS. Dried blood spots improve access to HIV diagnosis and care for infants in low-resource settings. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082005;38:615\u2013617","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000143604.71857.5d"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn DT, Brandt CD, Krivine A, et al. The sensitivity of HIV-1 DNA polymerase chain reaction in the neonatal period and the relative contributions of intra-uterine and intra-partum transmission. AIDS.\u20081995;9:F7\u2013F11","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199509000-00001"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owens DK, Holodniy M, McDonald TW, Scott J, Sonnad S. A meta-analytic evaluation of the polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of HIV infection in infants [published correction appears in JAMA. 1996;276:1302].JAMA.\u20081996;275:1342\u20131348","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.275.17.1342"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delamare C, Burgard M, Mayaux MJ, et al. HIV-1 RNA detection in plasma for the diagnosis of infection in neonates. The French Pediatric HIV Infection Study Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol.\u20081997;15:121\u2013125","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199706010-00004"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steketee RW, Abrams EJ, Thea DM, et al. Early detection of perinatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 infection using HIV RNA amplification and detection. New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study. J Infect Dis.\u20081997;175:707\u2013711","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/175.3.707"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simonds RJ, Brown TM, Thea DM, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of a qualitative RNA detection assay to diagnose HIV infection in young infants. Perinatal AIDS Collaborative Transmission Study. AIDS.\u20081998;12:1545\u20131549","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199812000-00018"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Young NL, Shaffer N, Chaowanachan T, et al. Early diagnosis of HIV-1-infected infants in Thailand using RNA and DNA PCR assays sensitive to non-B subtypes. Bangkok Collaborative Perinatal HIV Transmission Study Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082000;24:401\u2013407","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200008150-00001"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Souza IE, Azevedo ML, Succi RC, Machado DM, Diaz RS. RNA viral load test for early diagnosis of vertical transmission of HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082000;23:358\u2013360","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200004010-00015"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reisler RB, Thea DM, Pliner V, et al. Early detection of reverse transcriptase activity in plasma of neonates infected with HIV-1: a comparative analysis with RNA-based and DNA-based testing using polymerase chain reaction. Perinatal AIDS Collaborative Transmission Studies (PACTS) Members. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082001;26:93\u2013102","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200101010-00013"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rouet F, Montcho C, Rouzioux C, et al. Early diagnosis of paediatric HIV-1 infection among African breast-fed children using a quantitative plasma HIV RNA assay. Abidjan DITRAME Study Group (ANRS 049 clinical trial). AIDS.\u20082001;15:1849\u20131856","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200109280-00015"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nesheim S, Palumbo P, Sullivan K, et al. Quantitative RNA testing for diagnosis of HIV-infected infants. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082003;32:192\u2013195","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200302010-00011"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rouet F, Sakarovitch C, Msellati P, et al. Pediatric viral human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA levels, timing of infection, and disease progression in African HIV-1-infected children. Abidjan ANRS 049 Ditrame Study Group. Pediatrics.\u20082003;112(4). Available at: www.pediatrics.org\/cgi\/content\/full\/112\/4\/e289. Accessed May 16, 2007","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.112.4.e289"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braun J, Plantier JC, Hellot MF, et al. A new quantitative HIV load assay based on plasma virion reverse transcriptase activity for the different types, groups and subtypes. AIDS.\u20082003;17:331\u2013336","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200302140-00006"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rouet F, Ekouevi DK, Chaix ML, et al. Transfer and evaluation of an automated, low-cost real-time reverse transcription-PCR test for diagnosis and monitoring of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in a West African resource-limited setting. J Clin Microbiol.\u20082005;43:2709\u20132717","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.6.2709-2717.2005"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miles SA, Balden E, Magpantay L, et al. Rapid serologic testing with immune-complex-dissociated HIV p24 antigen for early detection of HIV infection in neonates. Southern California Pediatric AIDS Consortium. N Engl J Med.\u20081993;328:297\u2013302","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199302043280501"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schu\u0308pbach J, Boni J, Tomasik Z, Jendis J, Seger R, Kind C. Sensitive detection and early prognostic significance of p24 antigen in heat-denatured plasma of human immunodeficiency virus type1-infected infants. Swiss Neonatal HIV Study Group. J Infect Dis.\u20081994;170:318\u2013324","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/170.2.318"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen K, Santos E, Rubini N, et al. Immune complex-dissociated p24 antigenemia in the diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection in vertically infected Brazilian children. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20081995;14:67\u201369","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199501000-00016"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis DE, Adu-Oppong A, Hollinger FB, et al. Sensitivity of immune complex-dissociated p24 antigen testing for early detection of human immunodeficiency virus in infants. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol.\u20081995;2:87\u201390","DOI":"10.1128\/cdli.2.1.87-90.1995"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bulterys M, Farzadegan H, Chao A, et al. Diagnostic utility of immune-complex-dissociated p24 antigen detection in perinatally acquired HIV-1 infection in Rwanda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol.\u20081995;10:186\u2013191","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199510020-00012"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lyamuya E, Bredberg-Raden U, Massawe A, et al. Performance of a modified HIV-1 p24 antigen assay for early diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in infants and prediction of mother-to-infant transmission of HIV-1 in Dares Salaam, Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol.\u20081996;12:421\u2013426","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199608010-00014"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paul MO, Toedter G, Hofheinz D, et al. Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in infants by immune complex dissociation p24 assay. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol.\u20081997;4:75\u201378","DOI":"10.1128\/cdli.4.1.75-78.1997"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rich KC, Janda W, Kalish LA, et al. Immune complex-dissociated p24 antigen in congenital or perinatal HIV infection: role in the diagnosis and assessment of risk of infection in infants. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol.\u20081997;15:198\u2013203","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199707010-00003"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panakitsuwan S, Yoshihara N, Hashimoto N, Miyamura K, Chotpitayasunondh T. Early diagnosis of vertical HIV infection in infants by rapid detection of immune complex-dissociated HIV p24 antigen. AIDS Patient Care STDS.\u20081997;11:429\u2013433","DOI":"10.1089\/apc.1997.11.429"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nadal D, Boni J, Kind C, et al. Prospective evaluation of amplification-boosted ELISA for heat-denatured p24 antigen for diagnosis and monitoring of pediatric human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Infect Dis.\u20081999;180:1089\u20131095","DOI":"10.1086\/315012"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guay LA, Hom DL, Kabengera SR, et al. HIV-1 ICD p24 antigen detection in Ugandan infants: use in early diagnosis of infection and as a marker of disease progression. J Med Virol.\u20082000;62:426\u2013434","DOI":"10.1002\/1096-9071(200012)62:4<426::AID-JMV6>3.0.CO;2-S"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sutthent R, Gaudart N, Chokpaibulkit K, Tanliang N, Kanoksinsombath C, Chaisilwatana P. p24 antigen detection assay modified with a booster step for diagnosis and monitoring of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Clin Microbiol.\u20082003;41:1016\u20131022","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.3.1016-1022.2003"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribas SG, Ondoa P, Schu\u0308pbach J, van der Groen G, Fransen K. Performance of a quantitative human immunodeficiency virus type 1 p24 antigen assay on various HIV-1 subtypes for the follow-up of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seropositive individuals. J Virol Methods.\u20082003;113:29\u201334","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-0934(03)00219-2"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherman GG, Stevens G, Stevens WS. Affordable diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection in infants by p24 antigen detection. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082004;23:173\u2013176","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000109332.83246.1a"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Baets AJ, Edidi BS, Kasali MJ, et al. Pediatric human immunodeficiency virus screening in an African district hospital. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol.\u20082005;12:86\u201392","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.12.1.86-92.2005"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zijenah LS, Tobaiwa O, Rusakaniko S, et al. Signal-boosted qualitative ultrasensitive p24 antigen assay for diagnosis of subtype C HIV-1 infection in infants under the age of 2 years. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082005;39:391\u2013394","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000158401.59047.84"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Respess RA, Cachafeiro A, Withum D, et al. Evaluation of an ultrasensitive p24 antigen assay as a potential alternative to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA viral load assay in resource-limited settings. J Clin Microbiol.\u20082005;43:506\u2013508","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.1.506-508.2005"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patton JC, Sherman GG, Coovadia AH, Stevens WS, Meyers TM. Ultrasensitive human immunodeficiency virus type 1 p24 antigen assay modified for use on dried whole-blood spots as a reliable, affordable test for infant diagnosis. Clin Vaccine Immunol.\u20082006;13:152\u2013155","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.13.1.152-155.2006"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R94","unstructured":"Schu\u0308pbach J. Measurement of HIV-1 p24 antigen by signal-amplification-boosted ELISA of heat-denatured plasma is a simple and inexpensive alternative to tests for viral RNA. AIDS Rev.\u20082002;4:83\u201392"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R95","unstructured":"Rakusan TA, Parrott RH, Sever JL. Limitations in the laboratory diagnosis of vertically acquired HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20081991;4:116\u2013121"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Collaborative Study. Children born to women with HIV-1 infection: natural history and risk of transmission. Lancet.\u20081991;337:253\u2013260","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(91)90866-N"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moodley D, Bobat RA, Coutsoudis A, Coovadia HM. Predicting perinatal human immunodeficiency virus infection by antibody patterns. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20081995;14:850\u2013852","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199510000-00006"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moodley D, Coovadia HM, Bobat RA, Madurai S, Sullivan JL. The relationship between maternal-infant antibody levels and vertical transmission of HIV-1 infection. J Trop Pediatr.\u20081997;43:75\u201379","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/43.2.75"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherman GG, Stevens WS, Stevens G, Galpin JS. Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection in perinatally exposed orphaned infants in a resource-poor setting. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082000;19:1014\u20131015","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-200010000-00017"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andiman WA, Simpson BJ, Olson B, Dember L, Silva TJ, Miller G. Rate of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection from mother to child and short-term outcome of neonatal infection: results of a prospective cohort study. Am J Dis Child.\u20081990;144:758\u2013766","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1990.02150310026020"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chantry CJ, Cooper ER, Pelton SI, Zorilla C, Hillyer GV, Diaz C. Seroreversion in human immunodeficiency virus-exposed but uninfected infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20081995;14:382\u2013387","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199505000-00009"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palasanthiran P, Robertson P, Ziegler JB, Graham GG. Decay of transplacental human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibodies in neonates and infants. J Infect Dis.\u20081994;170:1593\u20131596","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/170.6.1593"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bryson Y, Luzuriaga K, Sullivan JL, Wara DW. Proposed definitions for in utero versus intrapartum transmission of HIV-1. N Engl J Med.\u20081992;327:1246\u20131247","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199210223271718"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R104","unstructured":"Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Available at:http:\/\/aidsinfo.nih.gov\/contentfiles\/PediatricGuidelines.pdf. Accessed October 29, 2007"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R105","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for national human immunodeficiency virus case surveillance, including monitoring for human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MMWR Recomm Rep.\u20081999;48(RR-13):1\u201327, 29\u201331"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R106","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007 revision of the surveillance case definition for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection\/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and HIV infection classification system for adults and adolescents, the 2007 revision of the surveillance case definition for HIV infection among children aged &lt;18 months, and the 2007 revision of the surveillance case definition for HIV infection and AIDS among children aged &gt;18 months but &lt;13 years. MMWR Recomm Rep.\u20082008; in press"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bulterys M, Jamieson DJ, O'Sullivan MJ, et al. Rapid HIV-1 testing during labor: a multicenter study. Mother-Infant Rapid Intervention at Delivery (MIRIAD) Study Group. JAMA.\u20082004;292:219\u2013223","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.292.2.219"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R108","unstructured":"Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep.\u20082006;55(RR-14):1\u201317"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R109","unstructured":"Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus [letter]. N Engl J Med.\u20081999;340:1042\u20131043"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De\u0301sire\u0301 N, Dehee A, Schneider V, et al. Quantification of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proviral load by a TaqMan real-time PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol.\u20082001;39:1303\u20131310","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.39.4.1303-1310.2001"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn DT, Simonds RJ, Bulterys M, et al. Interventions to prevent vertical transmission of HIV-1: effect on viral rate in early infant samples. AIDS.\u20082000;14:1421\u20131428","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200007070-00016"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prasitwattanaseree S, Lallemant M, Costagliola D, Jourdain G, Mary JY. Influence of mother and infant zidovudine treatment duration on the age at which HIV infection can be detected by polymerase chain reaction in infants. Antivir Ther.\u20082004;9:179\u2013185","DOI":"10.1177\/135965350400900213"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCutchan FE. Global epidemiology of HIV. J Med Virol.\u20082006;78(suppl 1):S7\u2013S12","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.20599"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson DL, Anderson JP, Bradac JA, et al. HIV-1 nomenclature proposal. Science.\u20082000;288:55\u201356","DOI":"10.1126\/science.288.5463.55d"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karchava M, Pulver W, Smith L, et al. Prevalence of drug-resistance mutations and non-subtype B strains among HIV-infected infants from New York State. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082006;42:614\u2013619","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000225871.87456.e7"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haas J, Geiss M, Bohler T. False-negative polymerase chain reaction-based diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 in children infected with HIV strains of African origin. J Infect Dis.\u20081996;174:244\u2013245","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/174.1.244a"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kline NE, Schwarzwald H, Kline MW. False negative DNA polymerase chain reaction in an infant with subtype C human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082002;21:885\u2013886","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-200209000-00023"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O'Shea S, Mullen J, Tong CY. Pediatric diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: the problem of false negative DNA polymerase chain reaction results. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082003;22:476\u2013477","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000068211.43978.e9"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obaro SK, Losikoff P, Harwell J, Pugatch D. Failure of serial human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA polymerase chain reactions to identify human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clade A\/G. Pediatr Infect Dis J.\u20082005;24:183\u2013184","DOI":"10.1097\/01.inf.0000151040.57772.40"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triques K, Coste J, Perret JL, et al. Efficiencies of four versions of the Amplicor HIV-1 monitor test for quantification of different subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Clin Microbiol.\u20081999;37:110\u2013116","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.37.1.110-116.1999"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michael NL, Herman SA, Kwok S, et al. Development of calibrated viral load standards for group M subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and performance of an improved Amplicor HIV-1 monitor test with isolates of diverse subtypes. J Clin Microbiol.\u20081999;37:2557\u20132563","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.37.8.2557-2563.1999"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gueudin M, Lemee V, Ferre V, et al. Virologic diagnosis and follow-up of children born to mothers infected by HIV-1 Group O. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr.\u20082004;36:639\u2013641","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200405010-00014"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guyader M, Emerman M, Sonigo P, Clavel F, Montagnier L, Alizon M. Genome organization and transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Nature.\u20081987;326:662\u2013669","DOI":"10.1038\/326662a0"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berry N, Ariyoshi K, Balfe P, Tedder R, Whittle H. Sequence specificity of the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) long terminal repeat U3 region in vivo allows subtyping of the principal HIV-2 viral subtypes A and B. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses.\u20082001;17:263\u2013267","DOI":"10.1089\/088922201750063197"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O'Donovan D, Airyoshi K, Milligan P, et al. Maternal plasma viral RNA levels determine marked differences in mother-to-child transmission rates of HIV-1 and HIV-2 in the Gambia. MRC\/Gambia Government\/University College London Medical School Working Group on Mother-Child Transmission of HIV. AIDS.\u20082000;14:441\u2013448","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200003100-00019"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damond F, Descamps D, Farfara I, et al. Quantification of proviral load of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 subtypes A and B using real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol.\u20082001;39:4264\u20134268","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.39.12.4264-4268.2001"},{"key":"2021120902001846200_R127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schutten M, van den Hoogen B, van der Ende ME, Gruters RA, Osterhaus AD, Niesters HG. Development of a real-time quantitative RT-PCR for the detection of HIV-2 RNA in plasma. J Virol Methods.\u20082000;88:81\u201387","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-0934(00)00177-4"}],"container-title":["Pediatrics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/120\/6\/e1547\/1175166\/zpe012070e1547.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/120\/6\/e1547\/1175166\/zpe012070e1547.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,22]],"date-time":"2025-01-22T21:27:12Z","timestamp":1737581232000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article\/120\/6\/e1547\/70580\/Diagnosis-of-HIV-1-Infection-in-Children-Younger"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]},"references-count":127,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2007-2951","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-4005","1098-4275"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-4005","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-4275","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]}}}