{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T01:11:03Z","timestamp":1792113063531,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>OBJECTIVE:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Whether and to what extent racial\/ethnic disparities in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) diagnosis occur across early and middle childhood is currently unknown. We examined the over-time dynamics of race\/ethnic disparities in diagnosis from kindergarten to eighth grade and disparities in treatment in fifth and eighth grade.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>METHODS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Analyses of the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998\u20131999 (N = 17\u2009100) using discrete-time hazard modeling.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>RESULTS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Minority children were less likely than white children to receive an ADHD diagnosis. With time-invariant and -varying confounding factors statistically controlled the odds of ADHD diagnosis for African Americans, Hispanics, and children of other races\/ethnicities were 69% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 60%\u201376%), 50% (95% CI: 34%\u201362%), and 46% (95% CI: 26%\u201361%) lower, respectively, than for whites. Factors increasing children\u2019s risk of an ADHD diagnosis included being a boy, being raised by an older mother, being raised in an English-speaking household, and engaging in externalizing problem behaviors. Factors decreasing children\u2019s risk of an ADHD diagnosis included engaging in learning-related behaviors (eg, being attentive), displaying greater academic achievement, and not having health insurance. Among children diagnosed with ADHD, racial\/ethnic minorities were less likely than whites to be taking prescription medication for the disorder.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>CONCLUSIONS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Racial\/ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis occur by kindergarten and continue until at least the end of eighth grade. Measured confounding factors do not explain racial\/ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment. Culturally sensitive monitoring should be intensified to ensure that all children are appropriately screened, diagnosed, and treated for ADHD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2012-2390","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,24]],"date-time":"2013-06-24T21:27:26Z","timestamp":1372109246000},"page":"85-93","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":238,"title":["Racial and Ethnic Disparities in ADHD Diagnosis From Kindergarten to Eighth Grade"],"prefix":"10.1542","volume":"132","author":[{"given":"Paul L.","family":"Morgan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Staff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sociology and Crime, Law, and Justice, and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marianne M.","family":"Hillemeier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health Policy and Administration, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Farkas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, University of California, Irvine, California; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Maczuga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Research Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"417","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"2021120900122609300_B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.161.9.857","article-title":"Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children.","volume":"161","author":"Froehlich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021120900122609300_B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1177\/003335490512000405","article-title":"Racial and ethnic differences in ADHD and LD in young school-age children: parental reports in the National Health Interview Survey.","volume":"120","author":"Pastor","year":"2005","journal-title":"Public Health Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054707300094","article-title":"Evaluating the evidence for and against the overdiagnosis of ADHD.","volume":"11","author":"Sciutto","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"issue":"12","key":"2021120900122609300_B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.56.12.1073","article-title":"A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder.","volume":"56","author":"The MTA Cooperative Group","year":"1999","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120900122609300_B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2008.021","article-title":"Stimulant treatment in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder moderates adolescent academic outcome.","volume":"18","author":"Powers","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"2021120900122609300_B6"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021120900122609300_B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-1308","article-title":"Who receives a diagnosis of attention-deficit\/ hyperactivity disorder in the United States elementary school population?","volume":"117","author":"Schneider","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2021120900122609300_B8"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120900122609300_B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2008.10.001","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in African American children: what can be concluded from the past ten years?","volume":"29","author":"Miller","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2011.11030387","article-title":"Stimulant medication use in children: a 12-year perspective.","volume":"169","author":"Zuvekas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acap.2008.11.007","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in the mental health care utilization of fifth grade children.","volume":"9","author":"Coker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acad Pediatr"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-1243","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in medical and dental health, access to care, and use of services in US children.","volume":"121","author":"Flores","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2004-1474","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in early childhood health and health care.","volume":"115","author":"Flores","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120900122609300_B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1177\/0009922811417286","article-title":"Parent medication concerns predict underutilization of mental health services for minority children with ADHD.","volume":"51","author":"Berger-Jenkins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin Pediatr (Phila)"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120900122609300_B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-0030","article-title":"Disparities in provider elicitation of parents\u2019 developmental concerns for US children.","volume":"128","author":"Guerrero","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021120900122609300_B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ambp.2007.02.002","article-title":"Community perspectives of childhood behavioral problems and ADHD among African American parents.","volume":"7","author":"Olaniyan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ambul Pediatr"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120900122609300_B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054707311054","article-title":"Identifying, evaluating, diagnosing, and treating ADHD in minority youth.","volume":"11","author":"Hervey-Jumper","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054705280413","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of ADHD symptoms in the national health interview survey.","volume":"9","author":"Cuffe","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Atten Disord"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00915442","article-title":"Correlates and predictors of hyperactivity and aggression: a longitudinal study of parent-referred problem preschoolers.","volume":"14","author":"Campbell","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Abnorm Child Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021120900122609300_B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2214.2009.00938.x","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in pre-school children: current findings, recommended interventions and future directions.","volume":"35","author":"Daley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Care Health Dev"},{"issue":"11","key":"2021120900122609300_B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.161.11.2014","article-title":"Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children diagnosed at 4-6 years of age.","volume":"161","author":"Lahey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021120900122609300_B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.10238","article-title":"Relationships among attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, induced labor, and selected physiological and demographic variables.","volume":"60","author":"Claycomb","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Clin Psychol"},{"issue":"10","key":"2021120900122609300_B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1746-1561.2011.00639.x","article-title":"Inattention and hyperactivity and the achievement gap among urban minority youth.","volume":"81","author":"Basch","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Sch Health"},{"key":"2021120900122609300_B24","unstructured":"US Census Bureau. Income, expenditures, poverty, & wealth, table 712. The 2012 Statistical Abstract. 2012. Available at: www.census.gov\/compendia\/statab\/cats\/income_expenditures_poverty_wealth.html. Accessed April 8, 2013"},{"key":"2021120900122609300_B25"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199303000-00011","article-title":"Diagnoses of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder from parent reports predict diagnoses based on teacher reports.","volume":"32","author":"Biederman","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"issue":"10","key":"2021120900122609300_B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2006.03.036","article-title":"Comparison of parent and teacher reports of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder symptoms from two placebo-controlled studies of atomoxetine in children.","volume":"60","author":"Biederman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021120900122609300_B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.113.6.1667","article-title":"How informative are parent reports of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder symptoms for assessing outcome in clinical trials of long-acting treatments? A pooled analysis of parents\u2019 and teachers\u2019 reports.","volume":"113","author":"Biederman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"4","key":"2021120900122609300_B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02287433","article-title":"Agreement between CASA parent reports and provider records of children\u2019s ADHD services.","volume":"30","author":"Bussing","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Behav Health Serv Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120900122609300_B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-005-0415-5","article-title":"Correspondence of parent and teacher reports in medication trials.","volume":"14","author":"Faraone","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"issue":"8","key":"2021120900122609300_B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199508000-00009","article-title":"How reliable are maternal reports of their children\u2019s psychopathology? One-year recall of psychiatric diagnoses of ADHD children.","volume":"34","author":"Faraone","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"key":"2021120900122609300_B32","unstructured":"National Center for Educational Statistics. Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, kindergarten cohort: psychometric reports. Available at: http:\/\/nces.ed.gov\/pubsearch\/getpubcats.asp?sid=0242009. Accessed March 8, 2013"},{"key":"2021120900122609300_B33"},{"issue":"1","key":"2021120900122609300_B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2009.04.019","article-title":"Race, place and AIDS: the role of socioeconomic context on racial disparities in treatment and survival in San Francisco.","volume":"69","author":"Arnold","year":"2009","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"2021120900122609300_B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2006.106047","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in the development of disability among older adults.","volume":"97","author":"Dunlop","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120900122609300_B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-2702","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic disparities in risk of early childhood mortality among children with congenital heart defects.","volume":"127","author":"Nembhard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"8","key":"2021120900122609300_B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1097\/CHI.0b013e318179963c","article-title":"Longitudinal mental health service and medication use for ADHD among Puerto Rican youth in two contexts.","volume":"47","author":"Bird","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021120900122609300_B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1177\/1063426608314290","article-title":"School-based service use by youth with ADHD in public-sector settings.","volume":"16","author":"Leslie","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Emot Behav Disord"},{"issue":"3","key":"2021120900122609300_B39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0b013e3180324d9a","article-title":"Investigating ADHD treatment trajectories: listening to families\u2019 stories about medication use.","volume":"28","author":"Leslie","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Dev Behav Pediatr"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1080\/10673220590956465","article-title":"Exploring help-seeking for ADHD symptoms: a mixed-methods approach.","volume":"13","author":"Bussing","year":"2005","journal-title":"Harv Rev Psychiatry"},{"issue":"7","key":"2021120900122609300_B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2005.01553.x","article-title":"Barriers to the identification of children with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder.","volume":"47","author":"Sayal","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"2021120900122609300_B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0b013e328317efff","article-title":"The importance of cultural competency in general pediatrics.","volume":"20","author":"Brotanek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr Opin Pediatr"},{"issue":"5","key":"2021120900122609300_B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1007\/s10488-006-0063-1","article-title":"Service utilization among ethnic minority children with ADHD: a model of help-seeking behavior.","volume":"33","author":"Eiraldi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adm Policy Ment Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120900122609300_B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1521\/scpq.20.2.206.66511","article-title":"Child psychopharmacology: how school psychologists can contribute to effective outcomes.","volume":"20","author":"DuPaul","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sch Psychol Q"}],"container-title":["Pediatrics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/132\/1\/85\/1102223\/peds_2012-2390.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/132\/1\/85\/1102223\/peds_2012-2390.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,9]],"date-time":"2021-12-09T00:44:34Z","timestamp":1639010674000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article\/132\/1\/85\/31329\/Racial-and-Ethnic-Disparities-in-ADHD-Diagnosis"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2012-2390","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-4005","1098-4275"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-4005","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-4275","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]]}}}