{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T10:51:18Z","timestamp":1791197478653,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Pediatric encephalitis has a wide range of etiologies, clinical presentations, and outcomes. This study seeks to classify and characterize infectious, immune-mediated\/autoantibody-associated and unknown forms of encephalitis, including relative frequencies, clinical and radiologic phenotypes, and long-term outcome.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>METHODS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>By using consensus definitions and a retrospective single-center cohort of 164 Australian children, we performed clinical and radiologic phenotyping blinded to etiology and outcomes, and we tested archived acute sera for autoantibodies to N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, voltage-gated potassium channel complex, and other neuronal antigens. Through telephone interviews, we defined outcomes by using the Liverpool Outcome Score (for encephalitis).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>RESULTS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>An infectious encephalitis occurred in 30%, infection-associated encephalopathy in 8%, immune-mediated\/autoantibody-associated encephalitis in 34%, and unknown encephalitis in 28%. In descending order of frequency, the larger subgroups were acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (21%), enterovirus (12%), Mycoplasma pneumoniae (7%), N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody (6%), herpes simplex virus (5%), and voltage-gated potassium channel complex antibody (4%). Movement disorders, psychiatric symptoms, agitation, speech dysfunction, cerebrospinal fluid oligoclonal bands, MRI limbic encephalitis, and clinical relapse were more common in patients with autoantibodies. An abnormal outcome occurred in 49% of patients after a median follow-up of 5.8 years. Herpes simplex virus and unknown forms had the worst outcomes. According to our multivariate analysis, an abnormal outcome was more common in patients with status epilepticus, magnetic resonance diffusion restriction, and ICU admission.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>CONCLUSIONS:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We have defined clinical and radiologic phenotypes of infectious and immune-mediated\/autoantibody-associated encephalitis. In this resource-rich cohort, immune-mediated\/autoantibody-associated etiologies are common, and the recognition and treatment of these entities should be a clinical priority.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-2702","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,23]],"date-time":"2015-03-23T21:03:52Z","timestamp":1427144632000},"page":"e974-e984","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":121,"title":["Infectious and Autoantibody-Associated Encephalitis: Clinical Features and Long-term Outcome"],"prefix":"10.1542","volume":"135","author":[{"given":"Sekhar C.","family":"Pillai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimmunology Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Muscle Research at the Kids Research Institute, Children\u2019s Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Australia;"},{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yael","family":"Hacohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, England;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esther","family":"Tantsis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimmunology Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Muscle Research at the Kids Research Institute, Children\u2019s Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Australia;"},{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristina","family":"Prelog","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Medical Imaging,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vera","family":"Merheb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimmunology Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Muscle Research at the Kids Research Institute, Children\u2019s Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Australia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alison","family":"Kesson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Barnes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Statistics, the Children\u2019s Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia;"},{"name":"National Health Medical Research Council Clinical Trials Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deepak","family":"Gill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Webster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manoj","family":"Menezes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Ardern-Holmes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sachin","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Procopis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Troedson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jayne","family":"Antony","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert A.","family":"Ouvrier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yann","family":"Polfrit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre Hospitalier Territorial Magenta, Service Pediatric, Noum\u00e9a, New Caledonia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas W. S.","family":"Davies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chelsea & Westminster Hospital, Department of Neurology, Imperial College Healthcare National Health Service Trust, London, England; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Waters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, England;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bethan","family":"Lang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, England;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming J.","family":"Lim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, England;"},{"name":"Evelina Children\u2019s Hospital, London, England"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabienne","family":"Brilot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimmunology Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Muscle Research at the Kids Research Institute, Children\u2019s Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Australia;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Vincent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, England;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Russell C.","family":"Dale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroimmunology Group, Institute of Neuroscience and Muscle Research at the Kids Research Institute, Children\u2019s Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Australia;"},{"name":"TY Nelson Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"417","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"6","key":"2021120907054961400_B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268810000725","article-title":"Causality in acute encephalitis: defining aetiologies.","volume":"138","author":"Granerod","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120907054961400_B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000570","article-title":"Utility and safety of rituximab in pediatric autoimmune and inflammatory CNS disease.","volume":"83","author":"Dale","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"issue":"2","key":"2021120907054961400_B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70310-1","article-title":"Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study.","volume":"12","author":"Titulaer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"issue":"7","key":"2021120907054961400_B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cir1038","article-title":"The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California Encephalitis Project.","volume":"54","author":"Gable","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"12","key":"2021120907054961400_B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70222-X","article-title":"Causes of encephalitis and differences in their clinical presentations in England: a multicentre, population-based prospective study.","volume":"10","author":"Granerod","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"7","key":"2021120907054961400_B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s004310050658","article-title":"Epidemiology of encephalitis in children. 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