{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,10]],"date-time":"2026-11-10T13:26:59Z","timestamp":1794317219109,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)","issue":"5","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title\/>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>OBJECTIVES<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To understand the association between exclusive breastfeeding, any breastfeeding, and infant formula feeding and childhood growth.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>METHODS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A longitudinal cohort study was conducted among children from birth up to 10 years in Toronto, Canada. The primary exposure was exclusive breastfeeding. Secondary exposures were any breastfeeding and infant formula feeding. The primary outcome was body mass index z-score (zBMI). The secondary outcome was overweight and obesity (zBMI\u00a0&amp;gt;\u00a01).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>RESULTS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In total, 5379 children were included and followed to 3 years of age on average. Each 1-month increase in exclusive breastfeeding was associated with 0.01 lower zBMI (95% CI, \u22120.02 to \u22120.00) and lower odds of overweight and obesity (OR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.94\u20130.98) with similar associations for any breastfeeding (zBMI, \u22120.01; 95% CI, \u22120.01 to \u22120.00; OR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.97\u20130.99). Each 1-month increase in infant formula feeding was associated with 0.01 higher zBMI (95% CI, 0.00\u20130.01) and higher odds of overweight and obesity (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 1.01\u20131.03). There was little evidence for modifying effects between infant feeding practices. Infant formula feeding for 24 months was associated with 0.27 higher zBMI (95% CI, 0.14\u20130.41) and 72% higher odds (OR, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.22\u20132.44) of overweight and obesity when compared to exclusive breastfeeding to 6 months of age and any breastfeeding to 24 months of age.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>CONCLUSIONS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Longer exclusive breastfeeding and any breastfeeding were associated with lower zBMI and lower odds of overweight and obesity, whereas the opposite was true for infant formula feeding. Effective breastfeeding interventions include postnatal, intensive, and in-person support provided by trained health care professionals.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2026-076578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T00:03:01Z","timestamp":1790899381000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Exclusive and Any Breastfeeding, Infant Formula Feeding, and Childhood Growth"],"prefix":"10.1542","volume":"158","author":[{"given":"Curtis J.","family":"D\u2019Hollander","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"2Department of Pediatrics, St Michael\u2019s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"3Applied Health Research Centre, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles D. G.","family":"Keown-Stoneman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3Applied Health Research Centre, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"4Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine S.","family":"Birken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"5Division of Pediatric Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"6Child Health Evaluative Sciences, SickKids Research Institute, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"7Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"8Institute of Health Policy Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"9Joannah & Brian Lawson Centre for Child Nutrition, Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deborah L.","family":"O\u2019Connor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"10Translational Medicine Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathon L.","family":"Maguire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2Department of Pediatrics, St Michael\u2019s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"7Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"8Institute of Health Policy Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"9Joannah & Brian Lawson Centre for Child Nutrition, Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"},{"name":"11Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St Michael\u2019s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"417","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"reference":[{"issue":"8","key":"2026111007575139400_r1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2024.1576","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"178","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026111007575139400_r2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.4103\/2249-4863.154628","article-title":"Childhood obesity: causes and consequences","volume":"4","author":"Sahoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Family Med Prim Care."},{"issue":"S1","key":"2026111007575139400_r3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S60","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2009.20","article-title":"Complications of obesity in children and adolescents","volume":"33","author":"Daniels","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int J Obes (Lond)."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026111007575139400_r4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.12334","article-title":"Predicting adult obesity from childhood obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"17","author":"Simmonds","year":"2016","journal-title":"Obes Rev."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026111007575139400_r5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-789X.2012.01015.x","article-title":"The impact of childhood obesity on morbidity and mortality in adulthood: a systematic review","volume":"13","author":"Park","year":"2012","journal-title":"Obes Rev."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r6","article-title":"Infant and young child feeding","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r7","volume-title":"WHO Guideline for Complementary Feeding of Infants and Young Children 6\u201323 Months of Age","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026111007575139400_r8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022057988","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-057988","article-title":"Policy Statement: Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk","volume":"150","author":"Meek","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026111007575139400_r9","first-page":"547","article-title":"Nutrition for healthy term infants, six to 24 months: An overview","volume":"19","author":"Critch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Paediatr Child Health."},{"issue":"1267","key":"2026111007575139400_r10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-1267","article-title":"The association between breastfeeding and childhood obesity: a meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"BMC Public Health."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026111007575139400_r11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab206","article-title":"Breastfeeding and risk of overweight in childhood and beyond: a systematic review with emphasis on sibling-pair and intervention studies","volume":"114","author":"Dewey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026111007575139400_r12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.2307\/1965599","article-title":"Issues in the design of breastfeeding research","volume":"12","author":"Winikoff","year":"1981","journal-title":"Stud Fam Plann."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026111007575139400_r13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-147-8-200710160-00010","article-title":"The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies","volume":"147","author":"von Elm","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026111007575139400_r14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyu123","article-title":"Cohort Profile: The Applied Research Group for Kids (TARGet Kids!)","volume":"44","author":"Carsley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r15","article-title":"Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS)","author":"Government of Canada","year":"2025"},{"issue":"14","key":"2026111007575139400_r16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2494","DOI":"10.1017\/S136898002000018X","article-title":"Validation of maternal recall on exclusive breastfeeding 12 months after childbirth","volume":"23","author":"Schneider","year":"2020","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026111007575139400_r17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334417691506","article-title":"Validation Study of Maternal Recall on Breastfeeding Duration 6 Years After Childbirth","volume":"33","author":"Amissah","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Hum Lact."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r18","volume-title":"Training Course on Child Growth Assessment.","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2006.tb02378.x","article-title":"WHO Child Growth Standards based on length\/height, weight and age","volume":"450","author":"WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr Suppl."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026111007575139400_r20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.07.043497","article-title":"Development of a WHO growth reference for school-aged children and adolescents","volume":"85","author":"de Onis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026111007575139400_r21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.3109\/17477161003615583","article-title":"Defining obesity risk status in the general childhood population: which cut-offs should we use?","volume":"5","author":"de Onis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Pediatr Obes."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026111007575139400_r22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Stat Softw."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026111007575139400_r23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v064.i08","article-title":"R Package multgee: A Generalized Estimating Equations Solver for Multinomial Responses","volume":"64","author":"Touloumis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Stat Softw."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-19425-7","volume-title":"Regression Modeling Strategies: With Applications to Linear Models, Logistic and Ordinal Regression, and Survival Analysis","author":"Harrell","year":"2015","edition":"2nd ed"},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r25","article-title":"Low income cut-offs","author":"Statistics Canada","year":"2026"},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r26","article-title":"emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means","author":"Lenth","year":"2026"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026111007575139400_r27","first-page":"1","article-title":"mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R","volume":"45","author":"van Buuren","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Stat Softw."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026111007575139400_r28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172","DOI":"10.1177\/09622802231198795","article-title":"Logistic regression vs. predictive mean matching for imputing binary covariates","volume":"32","author":"Austin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stat Methods Med Res."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r29","article-title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","author":"R Core Team","year":"2025"},{"issue":"19","key":"2026111007575139400_r30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2461","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.285.19.2461","article-title":"Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants","volume":"285","author":"Gillman","year":"2001","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026111007575139400_r31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2009.165340","article-title":"What reduction in BMI SDS is required in obese adolescents to improve body composition and cardiometabolic health?","volume":"95","author":"Ford","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026111007575139400_r32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2003.028803","article-title":"Changes in the atherogenic risk factor profile according to degree of weight loss","volume":"89","author":"Reinehr","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch Dis Child."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.52570\/NESR.DGAC2020.SR0301","volume-title":"The Duration, Frequency, and Volume of Exclusive Human Milk and\/or Infant Formula Consumption and Overweight and Obesity: A Systematic Review","author":"Dewey","year":"2020"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026111007575139400_r34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704S","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.067694","article-title":"Ontogeny of taste preferences: basic biology and implications for health","volume":"99","author":"Mennella","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr."},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"2026111007575139400_r35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S50","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-0646I","article-title":"Breastfeeding duration is associated with child diet at 6 years","volume":"134","author":"Perrine","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026111007575139400_r36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-022-01117-z","article-title":"Longitudinal body mass index trajectories at preschool age: children with rapid growth have differential composition of the gut microbiota in the first year of life","volume":"46","author":"Reyna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Obes (Lond)."},{"issue":"suppl 7","key":"2026111007575139400_r37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqy276","article-title":"Caregiver feeding practices and child weight outcomes: a systematic review","volume":"109","author":"Spill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026111007575139400_r38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8080512","article-title":"Association between body mass index, waist-to-height ratio and adiposity in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Martin-Calvo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutrients."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026111007575139400_r39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2025.4291","article-title":"Prevalence of Excess Adiposity by Body Mass Index Category Among US Children and Adolescents","volume":"180","author":"Chetty","year":"2026","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026111007575139400_r40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/apa.16460","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of breastfeeding and later overweight or obesity expands on previous study for World Health Organization","volume":"112","author":"Horta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026111007575139400_r41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2025071516","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2025-071516","article-title":"Breastfeeding and Health Outcomes for Infants and Children: A Systematic Review","volume":"156","author":"Patnode","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pediatrics."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedn.2020.04.024","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis of the Association Between Breastfeeding and Early Childhood Obesity","volume":"53","author":"Qiao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Pediatr Nurs."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026111007575139400_r43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2024.6810","article-title":"Breastfeeding Support Provided by Lactation Consultants: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"179","author":"D\u2019Hollander","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"issue":"10017","key":"2026111007575139400_r44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)01044-2","article-title":"Why invest, and what it will take to improve breastfeeding practices?","volume":"387","author":"Rollins","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026111007575139400_r45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1177\/0890334415618668","article-title":"The Effectiveness of Lactation Consultants and Lactation Counselors on Breastfeeding Outcomes","volume":"32","author":"Patel","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Hum Lact."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026111007575139400_r46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s13006-019-0235-8","article-title":"Counselling interventions to enable women to initiate and continue breastfeeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"McFadden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int Breastfeed J."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026111007575139400_r47","first-page":"CD001141","article-title":"Support for healthy breastfeeding mothers with healthy term babies","volume":"10","author":"Gavine","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev."},{"issue":"17","key":"2026111007575139400_r48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.27267","article-title":"Interventions to Support Breastfeeding: Updated Evidence Report and Systematic Review for the US Preventive Services Task Force","volume":"333","author":"Patnode","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"2026111007575139400_r49","volume-title":"Guideline: Counselling of Women to Improve Breastfeeding Practices","year":"2018"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026111007575139400_r50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2025.5379","article-title":"Hospital Formula Supplementation Postbreastfeeding Initiation, Neighborhood Economy, and Race","volume":"180","author":"Mildon","year":"2026","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026111007575139400_r51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2022-0333","article-title":"Breastfeeding in Canada: predictors of initiation, exclusivity, and continuation from the 2017\u20132018 Canadian Community Health Survey","volume":"48","author":"Chan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl Physiol Nutr Metab."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026111007575139400_r52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2024.6807","article-title":"Addressing Inequities in Breastfeeding and Beyond","volume":"179","author":"Fern\u00e1ndez","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."}],"container-title":["Pediatrics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1542\/peds.2026-076578\/1970294\/pediatrics.2026076578.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1542\/peds.2026-076578\/1970294\/pediatrics.2026076578.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,10]],"date-time":"2026-11-10T12:58:05Z","timestamp":1794315485000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/publications.aap.org\/pediatrics\/article\/158\/5\/e2026076578\/210624\/Exclusive-and-Any-Breastfeeding-Infant-Formula"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2026-076578","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-4005","1098-4275"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-4005","type":"print"},{"value":"1098-4275","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]]},"article-number":"e2026076578"}}