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Within the tumour microenvironment (TME)\u2014comprising tumour cells, stromal cells, immune infiltrates and extracellular matrix\u2014TNF-\u03b1 regulates pathways involved in proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, metastasis and immune evasion, primarily via activation of Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-\u03baB). Elevated TNF-\u03b1 expression in CMTs correlates with inflammatory cell infiltration, dysregulated microRNAs such as miR-21 and miR-146b, increased High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) release and tumour-promoting inflammatory feedback loops. Conversely, TNF-\u03b1 also displays context-dependent antitumour properties, including the induction of apoptosis, pyroptosis and vascular disruption, as demonstrated by oncolytic Newcastle disease virus and combination therapies. High TNF-\u03b1 levels in plasma and tumour tissue serve as biomarkers of malignancy, tumour grade and clinical outcome in dogs. Collectively, the multifaceted role of TNF-\u03b1 in CMT pathophysiology highlights its significance as both a driver of disease progression and a potential therapeutic target, underscoring the need for carefully modulated TNF-\u03b1-based immunotherapeutic approaches in canine mammary cancer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1556\/004.2026.01280","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T09:37:41Z","timestamp":1779097061000},"page":"247-252","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1556\/policypage.crossmark.crossref.2","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The emerging importance of TNF-\u03b1 in canine mammary cancer: A narrative overview"],"prefix":"10.1556","volume":"74","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8215-1301","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Richa","family":"Arora","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Veterinary Biotechnology, ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arpit","family":"Tyagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Government of Animal Husbandry, Ballia, Uttar Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"425","reference":[{"key":"B1","series-title":"Res. 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