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Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"],"abstract":"<jats:p>BACKGROUND  In the Holocene, South American humans transformed large extensions of the continent, especially in cave ecosystems. Such transformations produced predictable eutrophic habitats that could have attracted foxes and further favored the adaptation of Lutzomyia longipalpis, insect vector of American Visceral Leishmaniosis (AVL), to human-contaminated habitats.  OBJECTIVES  Here we present spatial analyses on the distribution of caves, Holocene human populations, the present-days main wild reservoirs of Leishmania infantum, Cerdocyon thous and Lycalopex vetulus, and the vector Lu. longipalpis in Brazil.  METHODS  The presence or absence of Lu. longipalpis in function of cave abundance, based on coordinates of all recorded samples (Fiocruz and GBIF database and literature), and cave locations taken from ICMBio\/CECAV database, were tested by contingency table. The overlap in the distribution of Lu. longipalpis, C. thous and L. vetulus with humans from Holocene was tested by permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) from a nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS), using published archaeological data on human demography and ICMBio\u2019s data on caves and foxes.  FINDINGS  Caves are present in 18% of Brazilian municipalities, and Lu. longipalpis were significantly more frequent in these places than in municipalities without caves. Native humans and foxes have broader distributions than caves but co-occurred with Lu. longipalpis in cave-ecosystems.  MAIN CONCLUSION The most relevant implication of our findings is that visceral leishmaniasis should be considered a long-term human related disease, associated with few sandfly species well adapted to our modified, and heavily contaminated, environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1590\/0074-02760250190","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T11:12:58Z","timestamp":1770981178000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Holocene man-occupied caves and transformed wetlands as facilitating factors for Leishmania infantum in South America"],"prefix":"10.1590","volume":"121","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0191-8759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u00e9rvio Pontes","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,  Brazil; Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Camila de Paula","family":"Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,  Brazil; Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rafael Vieira","family":"Duarte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto,  Brazil; Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria Fernanda Brito","family":"de Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luccas Gabriel Ferreira","family":"Malta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Dilermando","family":"Andrade Filho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexandre Barbosa","family":"Reis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcos Hor\u00e1cio","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carlos EV","family":"Grelle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro,  Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jesus G","family":"Valenzuela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health,  USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tiago Donatelli","family":"Serafim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health,  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