{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T23:20:24Z","timestamp":1778628024197,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,25]],"date-time":"2015-08-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1440460800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008272","name":"Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008272","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title\/>\n                  <jats:p>Neuroendocrine tumors (NET) of the lung represent approximately 25% of all primary lung tumors and can be classified as low grade (typical carcinoids), intermediate grade (atypical carcinoids), or high grade (large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma or small cell lung carcinoma). Low- and intermediate-grade lung NET are increasingly recognized as biologically distinct from high-grade lung NET based on clinical behavior and underlying molecular abnormalities. This review summarizes current knowledge and challenges in the diagnosis and management of low- and intermediate-grade lung NET. Accurate histopathologic classification of lung NET is critical to determining appropriate treatment options but can be challenging even for experts. For low- and intermediate-grade lung NET, surgery remains the mainstay of treatment for localized disease. Although no standard systemic therapy has been established for the treatment of advanced, unresectable disease, a number of promising treatment options are emerging, including somatostatin analogs, temozolomide-based chemotherapy, targeted therapy with mammalian target of rapamycin or vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors, and peptide receptor radionuclide therapy. Given the difficulty in accurately diagnosing these tumors, and the paucity of data supporting establishment of standard systemic therapy options, management of patients within the setting of a multidisciplinary team, including specialists with expertise in NET, is recommended. Ongoing and future clinical trials hopefully will provide stronger evidence to support treatment recommendations for low- and intermediate-grade lung NET.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Implications for Practice:<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Treatment of neuroendocrine tumors (NET), particularly those of lung origin, continues to evolve. This review seeks to educate oncologists on the most up-to-date options and supporting data regarding management of two rare lung neoplasms, typical and atypical carcinoid tumors. Although surgical resection has been the mainstay of treatment, several systemic options have been studied in the treatment of NET of various origins that may potentially play a role in treating typical carcinoid tumors and atypical carcinoid tumors.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.2015-0198","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,26]],"date-time":"2015-08-26T01:54:02Z","timestamp":1440554042000},"page":"1123-1131","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Challenges in the Diagnosis and Management of Well-Differentiated Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Lung (Typical and Atypical Carcinoid): Current Status and Future Considerations"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Edward M.","family":"Wolin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021122309355564100_B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.11105","article-title":"A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors","volume":"97","author":"Modlin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"2021122309355564100_B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2007.15.4377","article-title":"One hundred years after \u201ccarcinoid\u201d: Epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States","volume":"26","author":"Yao","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"2021122309355564100_B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.5858\/2009-0583-RAR.1","article-title":"Neuroendocrine tumors of the lung: An update","volume":"134","author":"Rekhtman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch Pathol Lab Med"},{"key":"2021122309355564100_B4","volume-title":"World Health Organization classification of tumors. 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