{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T17:02:32Z","timestamp":1792602152219,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,10,1]],"date-time":"2003-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1064966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Learning Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>After completing this course, the reader will be able to:<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Select appropriate diagnostic tests for brain, spinal, leptomeningeal, and ocular metastases from breast cancer. Select appropriate therapy for brain, spinal, leptomeningeal, and ocular metastases from breast cancer. Discuss the efficacy and toxicities of therapy for brain, spinal, leptomeningeal, and ocular metastases from breast cancer.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Access and take the CME test online and receive one hour of AMA PRA category 1 credit at CME.TheOncologist.com<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>The brain, cranial nerves, leptomeninges, spinal cord, and eye compose the central nervous system (CNS) and are at risk for the development of metastases from breast cancer. Such metastases are diagnosed on the basis of clinical suspicion and substantiated by neuroimaging, resection when indicated, and sampling of cerebrospinal fluid when leptomeningeal metastasis (LM) is suspected. Treatment is aimed at palliation of symptoms and preservation of neurologic function. Historically, conventional radiation therapy has been the mainstay of palliative treatment for brain, cranial nerve, spinal cord, and ocular metastases. However, additional treatment options for brain metastases have been brought about by technological advances in surgery to resect brain metastases, and stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) to focally irradiate metastases, both of which have been substantiated by data from randomized trials. Ongoing research is aimed at refining criteria to select which patients with brain metastases should undergo surgery and SRS and how these focal therapies should be optimally integrated with whole-brain radiotherapy. Therapy for LM must carefully balance the potential risks and perceived benefits associated with CNS-directed therapies. Despite advances in neuroimaging, surgery, and radiation therapy, novel treatments are needed to improve the effectiveness of treatments for CNS metastases, especially LM, while reducing attendant neurotoxicity.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1634\/theoncologist.8-5-398","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,24]],"date-time":"2004-08-24T21:38:39Z","timestamp":1093383519000},"page":"398-410","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":130,"title":["Diagnosis and Management of Central Nervous System Metastases from Breast Cancer"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Eric L.","family":"Chang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021122209332251700_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1002\/jso.2930230311","article-title":"Breast carcinoma: pattern of metastasis at autopsy","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Surg Oncol"},{"key":"2021122209332251700_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(197911)44:5<1913::AID-CNCR2820440554>3.0.CO;2-D","article-title":"The natural history of breast cancer patients with brain metastases","volume":"44","author":"DiStefano","year":"1979","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"2021122209332251700_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-7125(16)30865-3","article-title":"Back pain and epidural spinal cord compression","volume":"71","author":"Posner","year":"1987","journal-title":"Med Clin North Am"},{"key":"2021122209332251700_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(19831215)52:12<2349::AID-CNCR2820521231>3.0.CO;2-B","article-title":"Central nervous system metastasis from breast carcinoma. 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