{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T12:33:58Z","timestamp":1793450038535,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"American Association of Avian Pathologists (AAAP)","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Avian Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>A grey-hooded parakeet (Psilopsiagon aymara) and two budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) from different owners presented with decreased activity, vomitus, and diarrhea. A microscopic examination of feces showed trophozoites of the protozoan flagellate Giardia. A commercial immunochromatographic dipstick test for Giardia sp. antigens confirmed the infection. These findings were assured by PCR of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene and coproantigen ELISA. Sequencing of PCR products of the SSU rRNA (292 bp) and \u03b2-giardin genes (511 bp) identified Giardia psittaci as the species involved. Therefore, our results show that a GSA 65\u2013based coproantigen ELISA, which was established for diagnosis of Giardia duodenalis is applicable for the detection of G. psittaci. A treatment with ronidazole was started. Additionally, fecal examination and dissection of the dead birds revealed coinfection with the fungal pathogen Macrorhabdus ornithogaster. One budgerigar survived and repeatedly tested negative after treatment with ronidazole. The described cases indicate that a single infection with G. psittaci has a good prognosis, whereas the prognosis is poor when coinfections occur, especially with M. ornithogaster.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1637\/0005-2086-64.2.228","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]],"date-time":"2020-06-15T09:29:05Z","timestamp":1592213345000},"page":"228-233","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Occurrence and Molecular Typing of Giardia psittaci in Parakeets in Germany\u2014A Case Study"],"prefix":"10.1637","volume":"64","author":[{"given":"M.","family":"Reuschel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Small Mammals, Reptiles, and Birds, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, B\u00fcnteweg 9, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"N.","family":"Pantchev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. Globokar","family":"Vrhovec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Jung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, B\u00fcnteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"I.","family":"Gerhauser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, B\u00fcnteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. R.","family":"Sannella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0, Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S. M.","family":"Cacci\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0, Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"Legler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Small Mammals, Reptiles, and Birds, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, B\u00fcnteweg 9, 30559 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1212","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Kulda  and E Noh\u00fdnkov\u00e1  \"Parasitic protozoa.\"  , \"Giardia in humans and animals.\" 225 (1995)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-426020-7.50008-6"},{"key":"2","unstructured":"FP. Filice,  \"Univ Calif Publ Zool.\"  57, \"Studies on the cytology and histology of Giardia from the laboratory rat.\" 53 (1952)"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SL Erlandsen  and WJ Bemrick  \"J Parasitol.\"  73, \"SEM evidence for a new species, Giardia psittaci.\" 623 (1987)","DOI":"10.2307\/3282146"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LJ Filippich, PA McDonnell, E Munoz, et al.  \"Aust Vet J.\"  76, \"Giardia infection in budgerigars.\" 246 (1998)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1998.tb10148.x"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Abe, I Makino, A Kojima,  \"Infect Genet Evol.\"  12, \"Molecular characterization of Giardia psittaci by multilocus sequence analysis.\" 1710 (2012)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2012.08.003"},{"key":"6","unstructured":"I Acosta Guevara, C Soto Pi\u00f1eiro, E Cruz L\u00f3pez,  \"Rev Electr\u00f3n Vet.\"  10, \"Presence of Giardia spp. on budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) in Cuba.\" 1 (2009)"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"VL Clyde  and S Patton  \"Semin Avian Exot Pet Med.\"  5, \"Diagnosis, treatment, and control of common parasites in companion and aviary birds.\" 75 (1996)","DOI":"10.1016\/S1055-937X(96)80020-X"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Clipsham,  \"Semin Avian Exot Pet Med.\"  4, \"Avian pathogenic flagellated enteric protozoa.\" 112 (1995)","DOI":"10.1016\/S1055-937X(05)80035-0"},{"key":"#cr-split#-9.1","unstructured":"AM. Fudge, \"The First Conference of the European Committee of the Association of Avian Veterinarians. 1991 Mar 13-16"},{"key":"#cr-split#-9.2","unstructured":"Vienna (Austria).\" , \"Common medical conditions seen in the cockatiel, Nymphicus hollandicus.\" 351 (1991)"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ED. Box,  \"J Protozool.\"  28, \"Observations on Giardia of budgerigars.\" 491 (1981)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1550-7408.1981.tb05326.x"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B Panigrahy, G Elissalde, LC Grumbles, et al.  \"Avian Dis.\"  22, \"Giardia infection in parakeets.\" 815 (1978)","DOI":"10.2307\/1589664"},{"key":"12","unstructured":"et al.  \"Performance standards for antimicrobial disk and dilution susceptibility test for bacteria isolated from animals.\"  ,  (2018)"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JD Rosoff  and HH Stibbs  \"J Clin Microbiol.\"  23, \"Isolation and identification of a Giardia lamblia\u2013specific stool antigen (GSA 65) useful in coprodiagnosis of giardiasis.\" 905 (1986)","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.23.5.905-910.1986"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Paris, D Rigal, V Barlet, et al.  \"J Mol Diagn.\"  16, \"Flexible automated platform for blood group genotyping on DNA microarrays.\" 335 (2014)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmoldx.2014.02.001"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LA Andersen, JK Levy, CM McManus, et al.  \"Vet J.\"  236, \"Prevalence of enteropathogens in cats with and without diarrhea in four different management models for unowned cats in the southeast United States.\" 49 (2018)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.04.008"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RM Hopkins, BP Meloni, DM Groth, et al.  \"J Parasitol.\"  83, \"Ribosomal RNA sequencing reveals differences between the genotypes of Giardia isolates recovered from humans and dogs living in the same locality.\" 44 (1997)","DOI":"10.2307\/3284315"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Lalle, E Pozio, G Capelli, et al.  \"Int J Parasitol.\"  35, \"Genetic heterogeneity at the \u03b2-giardin locus among human and animal isolates of Giardia duodenalis and identification of potentially zoonotic subgenotypes.\" 207 (2005)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2004.10.022"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SL Erlandsen, AR Weisbrod, LW Knudson, et al.  \"Int J Environ Health Res.\"  1, \"Giardiasis in wild and captive bird populations: high prevalence in herons and budgerigars.\" 132 (1991)","DOI":"10.1080\/09603129109356713"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SL Erlandsen, WJ Bemrick, CL Wells, et al.  \"J Parasitol.\"  76, \"Axenic culture and characterization of Giardia ardeae from the great blue heron (Ardea herodias).\" 717 (1990)","DOI":"10.2307\/3282988"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Reboredo-Fernandez, E Ares-Mazas, SM Caccio, et al.  \"Parasitology.\"  142, \"Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in wild birds in Galicia (northwest Spain).\" 917 (2015)","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182015000049"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Plutzer  and B Tomor  \"Parasitol Int.\"  58, \"The role of aquatic birds in the environmental dissemination of human pathogenic Giardia duodenalis cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in Hungary.\" 227 (2009)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2009.05.004"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PA McDonnell, KGE Scott, DA Teoh, et al.  \"Vet Parasitol.\"  111, \"Giardia duodenalis trophozoites isolated from a parrot (Cacatua galerita) colonize the small intestinal tracts of domestic kittens and lambs.\" 31 (2003)","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(02)00349-7"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JA Upcroft, PA McDonnell, AN Gallagher, et al.  \"Parasitology.\"  114, \"Lethal Giardia from a wild-caught sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) established in vitro chronically infects mice.\" 407 (1997)","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182096008724"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Papini, M Girivetto, M Marangi, et al.  \"Sci World J.\"  , \"Endoparasite infections in pet and zoo birds in Italy.\" 1 (2012)","DOI":"10.1100\/2012\/253127"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Boseret, B Losson, JG Mainil, et al.  \"Vet Res.\"  44, \"Zoonoses in pet birds: review and perspectives.\" 36 (2013)","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-44-36"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SL Erlandsen, WJ Bemrick, W Jakubowski,  \"Int J Environ Health Res.\"  1, \"Cross-species transmission of avian and mammalian Giardia spp: inoculation of chicks, ducklings, budgerigars, Mongolian gerbils and neonatal mice with Giardia ardeae, Giardia duodenalis (lamblia), Giardia psittaci and Giardia muris.\" 144 (1991)","DOI":"10.1080\/09603129109356714"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"YR Ortega  and RD Adam  \"Clin Infect Dis.\"  25, \"Giardia: overview and update.\" 545 (1997)","DOI":"10.1086\/513745"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AV Koehler, AR Jex, SR Haydon, et al.  \"Biotechnol Adv.\"  32, \"Giardia\/ giardiasis\u2014a perspective on diagnostic and analytical tools.\" 280 (2014)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2013.10.009"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Bouzid, K Halai, D Jeffreys, et al.  \"Vet Parasitol.\"  207, \"The prevalence of Giardia infection in dogs and cats, a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies from stool samples.\" 181 (2015)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2014.12.011"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H van Keulen, PT Macechko, S Wade, et al.  \"Vet Parasitol.\"  108, \"Presence of human Giardia in domestic, farm and wild animals, and environmental samples suggests a zoonotic potential for giardiasis.\" 97 (2002)","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(02)00181-4"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Abe  and I Teramoto  \"Parasitol Res.\"  110, \"Molecular evidence for person-to-person transmission of a novel subtype in Giardia duodenalis assemblage B at the rehabilitation institution for developmentally disabled people.\" 1025 (2012)","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-011-2564-4"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SM Cacci\u00f2  and U Ryan  \"Mol Biochem Parasitol.\"  160, \"Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis.\" 75 (2008)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2008.04.006"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Wielinga, U Ryan, RC Andrew Thompson, et al.  \"Int J Parasitol.\"  41, \"Multilocus analysis of Giardia duodenalis intra-Assemblage B substitution patterns in cloned culture isolates suggests sub-Assemblage B analyses will require multi-locus genotyping with conserved and variable genes.\" 495 (2011)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2010.11.007"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SM Cacci\u00f2, M De Giacomo, E Pozio,  \"Int J Parasitol.\"  32, \"Sequence analysis of the \u03b2-giardin gene and development of a polymerase chain reaction\u2013restriction fragment length polymorphism assay to genotype Giardia duodenalis cysts from human faecal samples.\" 1023 (2002)","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(02)00068-1"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Pantchev, A Broglia, B Paoletti, et al.  \"Vet Rec.\"  175, \"Occurrence and molecular typing of Giardia isolates in pet rabbits, chinchillas, guinea pigs and ferrets collected in Europe during 2006\u20132012.\" 18 (2014)","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.102236"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PT Monis, RH Andrews, G Mayrhofer, et al.  \"Mol Biol Evol.\"  16, \"Molecular systematics of the parasitic protozoan Giardia intestinalis.\" 1135 (1999)","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026204"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JK. Morrisey,  \"Semin Avian Exot Pet Med.\"  8, \"Gastrointestinal diseases of psittacine birds.\" 66 (1999)","DOI":"10.1016\/S1055-937X(99)80038-3"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Scholtens, J New, S Johnson,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  180, \"The nature and treatment of giardiasis in parakeets.\" 170 (1982)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1982.180.02.170"},{"key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MG Hawkins, D Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, H Beaufr\u00e8re, et al.  \"Exotic animal formulary.\"  , \"Birds.\" 167 (2018)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-44450-7.00005-9"},{"key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H Christensen, M Bisgaard, B Aalb\u00e6k, et al.  \"Int J Syst Evol Microbiol.\"  54, \"Reclassification of Bisgaard taxon 33, with proposal of Volucribacter psittacicida gen. nov., sp. nov. and Volucribacter amazonae sp. nov. as new members of the Pasteurellaceae.\" 813 (2004)","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.02797-0"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RH Gregersen, C Neubauer, H Christensen, et al.  \"J Appl Microbiol.\"  108, \"Characterization of Pasteurellaceae-like bacteria isolated from clinically affected psittacine birds.\" 1235 (2010)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2009.04518.x"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JB McLaughlin, A DePaola, CA Bopp, et al.  \"N Engl J Med.\"  353, \"Outbreak of Vibrio parahaemolyticus gastroenteritis associated with Alaskan oysters.\" 1463 (2005)","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa051594"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Miyasaka, S Yahiro, Y Arahira, et al.  \"Epidemiol Infect.\"  134, \"Isolation of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus from wild aquatic birds in Japan.\" 780 (2005)","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268805005674"},{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PG Xenoulis, PL Gray, D Brightsmith, et al.  \"Vet Microbiol.\"  146, \"Molecular characterization of the cloacal microbiota of wild and captive parrots.\" 320 (2010)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2010.05.024"}],"container-title":["Avian Diseases"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/avian-diseases\/volume-64\/issue-2\/0005-2086-64.2.228\/Occurrence-and-Molecular-Typing-of-Giardia-psittaci-in-Parakeets-in\/10.1637\/0005-2086-64.2.228.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T12:14:12Z","timestamp":1793448852000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/avian-diseases\/volume-64\/issue-2\/0005-2086-64.2.228\/Occurrence-and-Molecular-Typing-of-Giardia-psittaci-in-Parakeets-in\/10.1637\/0005-2086-64.2.228.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,12]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1637\/0005-2086-64.2.228","relation":{},"ISSN":["0005-2086","1938-4351"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0005-2086","type":"print"},{"value":"1938-4351","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,12]]}}}