{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:57:41Z","timestamp":1791244661294,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"American Association of Zoo Veterinarians","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>General anesthesia is a crucial tool in health care and clinical practice involving wildlife, including penguins. A balanced general anesthetic technique that combines multiple drugs is beneficial for achieving sufficient anesthesia while minimizing the side effects of individual agents. However, only a few studies have explored the use of multimodal anesthesia in penguins. This study examined the effects of midazolam (benzodiazepine) and butorphanol (mixed j-opioid agonist and weak l-opioid antagonist) as preanesthetic agents in gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua). Midazolam and butorphanol were administered intramuscularly at 0.25 mg\/kg each, followed by anesthesia induction and maintenance with alfaxalone administered intravenously. Sedation level, required alfaxalone dose, recovery time, heart rate, and noninvasive blood pressure were evaluated during anesthesia. Sedation intensity increased over time after premedication. When midazolam and butorphanol were used as preanesthetics, the required alfaxalone dose for induction was 4.8 \u00b1 0.8 mg\/kg, and the mean infusion rate of alfaxalone required to maintain anesthesia was 0.12 \u00b1 0.05 mg\/kg per minute. Recovery from anesthesia took 3 (1\u20137) (median [interquartile range]) min for extubation and 20 \u00b1 12 (mean \u00b1 SD) min for complete recovery. Heart rates were maintained within the normal physiological range, and noninvasive blood pressure remained stable. Compared with previous investigations on anesthesia induction and maintenance using alfaxalone alone, the intramuscular administration of 0.25 mg\/kg midazolam and 0.25 mg\/kg butorphanol reduced the alfaxalone dose requirement for anesthesia induction and maintenance, thereby shortening recovery times.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1638\/2023-0133","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T04:23:07Z","timestamp":1741580587000},"page":"8-15","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["INTRAMUSCULAR MIDAZOLAM AND BUTORPHANOL ADMINISTERED PRIOR TO INTRAVENOUS ALFAXALONE PROVIDES SAFE AND EFFECTIVE ANESTHESIA IN GENTOO PENGUINS (PYGOSCELIS PAPUA)"],"prefix":"10.1638","volume":"56","author":[{"given":"Koji","family":"Ono","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satoshi","family":"Inoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hirofumi","family":"Hatakeyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miki","family":"Masatsugu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Toko","family":"Maehara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroshi","family":"Satoh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1213","reference":[{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RM Bevan, PJ Butler, AJ Woakes, et al.  \"Funct Ecol.\"  16, \"The energetics of gentoo penguins, Pygoscelis papua, during the breeding season.\" 175 (2002)","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2435.2002.00622.x"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RM Bevan, AJ Woakes, PJ Butler, et al.  \"Physiol Zool.\"  68, \"Heart rate and oxygen consumption of exercising gentoo penguins.\" 855 (1995)","DOI":"10.1086\/physzool.68.5.30163935"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SE Bigby, JE Carter, S Bauquier, et al.  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  30, \"Use of propofol for induction and maintenance of anesthesia in a king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) undergoing magnetic resonance imaging.\" 237 (2016)","DOI":"10.1647\/2015-104"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Bodley  and TL Schmitt  \"Zoo animal and wildlife immobilization and anesthesia.\"  \"Penguins.\" 435 (2014)","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118792919.ch25"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Bradford, E Bronson, L Kintner, et al.  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  22, \"Diagnosis and attempted surgical repair of hemivertebrae in an African penguin (Spheniscus demersus).\" 331 (2008)","DOI":"10.1647\/2007-059.1"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Chang, CB Legg-St Pierre, B Ambros,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  36, \"Comparison of sedative effects of alfaxalone-ketamine and alfaxalone-midazolam administered intramuscularly in chickens.\" 21 (2022)","DOI":"10.1647\/20-00111"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T Grubb, J Sager, JS Gaynor, et al.  \"J Am Anim Hosp Assoc.\"  56, \"2020 AAHA anesthesia and monitoring guidelines for dogs and cats.\" 59 (2020)","DOI":"10.5326\/JAAHA-MS-7055"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Y. Kanda,  \"Bone Marrow Transplant.\"  48, \"Investigation of the freely available easy-to-use software \u201cEZR\u201d for medical statistics.\" 452 (2013)","DOI":"10.1038\/bmt.2012.244"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Naganobu, Y Fujisawa, H Ohde, et al.  \"Vet Surg.\"  29, \"Determination of the minimum anesthetic concentration and cardiovascular dose response for sevoflurane in chickens during controlled ventilation.\" 102 (2000)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.2000.00102.x"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Ono, M Yamasaki, T Ichijo, et al.  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  37, \"Effects of alfaxalone on the induction and maintenance of total intravenous anesthesia in gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua).\" 13 (2023)","DOI":"10.1647\/22-00021"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E Psatha, HIK Alibhai, A Jimenez-Lozano, et al.  \"Vet Anaesth Analg.\"  38, \"Clinical efficacy and cardiorespiratory effects of alfaxalone, or diazepam\/fentanyl for induction of anaesthesia in dogs that are a poor anaesthetic risk.\" 24 (2011)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2010.00577.x"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"DR Widmer, S Tacke, K Ternes, et al.  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  35, \"Injectable anesthesia with medetomidine, ketamine, and butorphanol in captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti).\" 167 (2021)","DOI":"10.1647\/2019-489"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"GA Doss, DM Fink, C Mans,  \"Am J Vet Res.\"  79, \"Assessment of sedation after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus).\" 1246 (2018)","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.12.1246"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Clements  and JN Sanchez  \"Zoo Biol.\"  34, \"Creation and validation of a novel body condition scoring method for the Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) in the zoo setting.\" 538 (2015)","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.21241"},{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MJ Acierno, A Da Cunha, J Smith, et al.  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  233, \"Agreement between direct and indirect blood pressure measurements obtained from anesthetized Hispaniolan Amazon parrots.\" 1587 (2008)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.233.10.1587"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"AM Zehnder, MG Hawkins, PJ Pascoe, et al.  \"Vet Anaesth Analg.\"  36, \"Evaluation of indirect blood pressure monitoring in awake and anesthetized red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis): effects of cuff size, cuff placement, and monitoring equipment.\" 464 (2009)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2009.00485.x"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KL Perrin, JB Nielsen, AF Thomsen, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  48, \"Alfaxalone anesthesia in the Bengalese finch (Lonchura domestica).\" 1146 (2017)","DOI":"10.1638\/2016-0300R.1"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Tamura, T Ishizuka, S Fukui, et al.  \"J Vet Med Sci.\"  77, \"The pharmacological effects of the anesthetic alfaxalone after intramuscular administration to dogs.\" 289 (2015)","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.14-0368"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JJ. Adcock,  \"Respir Med.\"  85, \"Peripheral opioid receptors and the cough reflex.\" 43 (1991)","DOI":"10.1016\/S0954-6111(06)80253-2"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Whitehead, SM Hoppes, JMB Musser, et al.  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  33, \"The use of alfaxalone in quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus).\" 340 (2019)","DOI":"10.1647\/2018-393"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CM Conner, SM Hoppes, BJ Stevens, et al.  \"Am J Vet Res.\"  83, \"Intranasal butorphanol and midazolam administered prior to intramuscular alfaxalone provides safe and effective sedation in Quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus).\" 1 (2022)","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.22.08.0140"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"G Doss  and C Mans  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  35, \"Avian sedation.\" 253 (2021)","DOI":"10.1647\/20-00045"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Mastakov, J Henning, R de Gier, et al.  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  35, \"Induction of general anesthesia with alfaxalone in the domestic chicken.\" 269 (2021)","DOI":"10.1647\/19-00022"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DC. Rankin,  \"Veterinary anesthesia and analgesia.\"  \"Sedatives and tranquilizers.\" 196 (2015)","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119421375.ch10"}],"container-title":["Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:29:19Z","timestamp":1791242959000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-zoo-and-wildlife-medicine\/volume-56\/issue-1\/2023-0133\/INTRAMUSCULAR-MIDAZOLAM-AND-BUTORPHANOL-ADMINISTERED-PRIOR-TO-INTRAVENOUS-ALFAXALONE-PROVIDES\/10.1638\/2023-0133.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1638\/2023-0133","relation":{},"ISSN":["1042-7260","1937-2825"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1042-7260","type":"print"},{"value":"1937-2825","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]]}}}