{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T22:54:08Z","timestamp":1791240848220,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"American Association of Zoo Veterinarians","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Giraffe anesthesia is considered high risk due to inherent challenges associated with their distinctive anatomy and physiology. This retrospective study (January 2014\u2013January 2024) in zoo-housed giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) evaluated three thiafentanil-medetomidine-ketamine based protocols without the aid of a giraffe restraint device (GRD) for induction of anesthesia (66 events, 45 individuals, 15 facilities). Individuals were categorized as either adult (\u22651 yr old) (n = 52) or juveniles (1 mon to &lt;1 yr old) (n = 14). Three protocols included: thiafentanil 7.4 \u00b1 1.1 \u00b5g\/kg, medetomidine 15.1 \u00b1 2.1 \u00b5g\/kg, and ketamine 0.7 \u00b1 0.1 mg\/kg as sole agents (TMK; 45\/66) or with the addition of butorphanol 0.02 \u00b1 0.01 mg\/kg in both a one-stage (TMKB; 9\/66) or two-stage (MB-TK; 12\/66) induction protocol. Adult giraffes were induced in indoor and outdoor holdings (typically padded, 42\/52, 81%) or pasture setting (10\/52, 19%), intubated, and ventilated. Time between darts was 13.3 \u00b1 3.5 min for MB-TK. Adult median antagonist ratios were 5 mg atipamezole (range 4\u201315 mg) per 1 mg medetomidine IM, 32 mg naltrexone (range 10\u2013214 mg) per 1 mg thiafentanil IM\/SC\/IV, and additional 3 mg naltrexone (range 0\u201334 mg) per 1 mg butorphanol IM\/SC\/IV. Median total anesthesia length (initial dart to antagonist administration) was 81.0 mins (range 26.0\u2013162.0 mins) across all procedures. Time to recumbency varied between one and two dart protocols. Recovery parameters after antagonists included time to extubation (6.0 \u00b1 4.6 min), head control (12.5 \u00b1 8.6 min), and standing (21.9 \u00b1 19.9 min). Adult mortality attributed to anesthetic complications was 2% (1\/52), juvenile mortality was 0%. This study and others support a decreasing risk of mortality during giraffe anesthesia (0\u20132%), compared with historical publications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1638\/2024-0111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]],"date-time":"2025-10-01T09:01:18Z","timestamp":1759309278000},"page":"483-496","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["EVALUATION OF THIAFENTANIL-MEDETOMIDINE-KETAMINE COMBINATIONS FOR ANESTHESIA WITHOUT THE USE OF A RESTRAINT DEVICE IN ZOO-HOUSED GIRAFFES (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS)"],"prefix":"10.1638","volume":"56","author":[{"given":"Megan M.","family":"Roeder","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Priya","family":"Bapodra-Villaverde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan","family":"Sadler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew E.","family":"Kinney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julie","family":"Swenson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronan","family":"Eustace","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher J.","family":"Thibault","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimberly A.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1213","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F Aprea, PM Taylor, A Routh, et al.  \"Vet Rec.\"  169, \"Short communications: Spinal cord injury during recovery from anaesthesia in a giraffe.\" 50 (2011)","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.d1685"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Auckburally  and G Nyman  \"Vet Anaesth Analg.\"  44, \"Review of hypoxaemia in anaesthetized horses: predisposing factors, consequences and management.\" 397 (2017)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaa.2016.06.001"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SL Bartlett, KL Arheart, MM Garner,  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  50, \"Retrospective analysis of mortality in captive bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus), 1995-2015.\" 303 (2019)","DOI":"10.1638\/2018-0175"},{"key":"4","unstructured":"GM Benbow  and DG Lyon  \"Association of Zoos and Aquariums Giraffe Husbandry Manual 2003.\"  \"Experiences with restraint and immobilization of captive giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in zoos and safari parks in Europe.\" (1997)"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MF. Bertelsen,  \"Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy.\"  8, \"Giraffidae.\" 603 (2015)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4557-7397-8.00061-X"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Bush  and V De Vos  \"J Zoo Anim Med.\"  18, \"Observations on Field Immobilization of Free-Ranging Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) Using Carfentanil and Xylazine.\" 135 (1987)","DOI":"10.2307\/20094823"},{"key":"9","unstructured":"M Bush, DG Grobler, JP Raath,  \"Zoological Restraint and Anesthesia.\"  \"The Art and Science of Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).\" (2002)"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SB Citino  and M Bush  \"Zoo Animal and Wildlife Immobilization and Anesthesia.\"  \"Giraffidae.\" 809 (2014)","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118792919.ch58"},{"key":"14","unstructured":"SB Citino, M Bush, W Lance, et al.  \"Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet.\"  \"Use of thiafentanil (A3080), medetomidine, and ketamine for anesthesia of captive and free-ranging giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).\" 211 (2006)"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JE Cole, L Dadone, S Rao, et al.  \"Zoo Biol.\"  43, \"Venous blood gas and lactate values in adult giraffe trained for voluntary jugular phlebotomy\" 371 (2024)","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.21831"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L. Dadone,  \"Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Current Therapy.\"  9, \"Lameness Diagnosis and Management in Zoo Giraffe.\" 623 (2019)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-55228-8.00088-6"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"L Dadone, S Foxworth, R Aruho,  \"PLoS One.\"  16, \"Foot shape and radiographs of free-ranging Nubian giraffe in Uganda.\" e0252929 (2021)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0252929"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"F Deacon, W Daffue, P Nel, et al.  \"Animals (Basel).\"  2022, \"Effective Field Immobilisation and Capture of Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).\" 1290","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12101290"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KW Delk, KR Mama, S Rao, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  50, \"Comparison of anesthesia of adult giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) using medetomidine-ketamine with and without a potent opioid.\" 457 (2019)","DOI":"10.1638\/2018-0119"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Deniz, M Metin, K Aksoy, et al.  \"Vet Clin Pathol.\"  52, \"Validation of a blood gas device for ionized calcium analysis in Holstein cows.\" 276 (2023)","DOI":"10.1111\/vcp.13233"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Dupont, D Serteyn, C Sandersen,  \"Front Vet Sci.\"  5, \"Prolonged recovery from general anesthesia possibly related to persistent hypoxemia in a draft horse.\" 1 (2018)","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2018.00235"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Fahlman, A Edner, S Wenger, et al.  \"J S Afr Vet Assoc.\"  87, \"Pulmonary gas exchange and acid-base status during immobilisation of black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) in Zimbabwe.\" 1 (2016)","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v87i1.1328"},{"key":"24","unstructured":"S Ferguson, RJ Harvey, S Fennessy, et al.  \"J S Afr Vet Assoc.\"  95, \"Immobilisation protocols for wild giraffe (Giraffa spp.) \u2013 a review.\" 77 (2024)"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Figueroa, L Dadone, T Locklear, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  55, \"A 30 yr (1991 \u2013 2020) retrospective mortality review of Giraffids (Giraffa spp. and Okapia johnstoni) in managed care.\" 13 (2024)","DOI":"10.1638\/2023-0091"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Jeon, KR Mama, JR Zuba, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  48, \"Evaluation of blood gas values in anesthetized southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) ventilated with a novel demand ventilator in a zoological park setting.\" 1016 (2017)","DOI":"10.1638\/2017-0048R1.1"},{"key":"27","unstructured":"N Lamberski, A Newell, RW Radcliffe,  \"Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet.\"  \"Thirty immobilizations of captive giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) using a combination of medetomidine and ketamine.\" 121 (2004)"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Mosing, AD Waldmann, M Sacks, et al.  \"J Appl Physiol.\"  129, \"What hinders pulmonary gas exchange and changes distribution of ventilation in immobilized white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) in lateral recumbency?\" 1140 (2020)","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00359.2020"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RW Radcliffe, M Jago, PV Morkel, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  57, \"The pulmonary and metabolic effects of suspension by the feet compared with lateral recumbency in immobilized black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) captured by aerial darting.\" 357 (2021)","DOI":"10.7589\/2019-08-202"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L Remport, V S\u00f3s-Koroknai, M Hoitsy, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  53, \"Mandibular Fractures in Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in European Zoos.\" 448 (2022)","DOI":"10.1638\/2021-0007"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I Savvas, K Pavlidou, C Braun, et al.  \"Animals.\"  11, \"Evaluation of the effect of the inspired oxygen fraction on blood oxygenation during inhalant anaesthesia in horses: A systematic review with meta-analysis.\" 2245 (2021)","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11082245"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E Stefanik, O Drewnowska, B Lisowska, et al.  \"Animals.\"  11, \"Causes, effects and methods of monitoring gas exchange disturbances during equine general anaesthesia.\" 1 (2021)","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11072049"},{"key":"36","unstructured":"J Swenson, A Eyres, HJ Haefele,  \"Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet.\"  2023, \"Morbidity and mortality associated with 50 individual pasture immobilizations of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) over 18 yrs (2004-2022) at a single institution.\" 103"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D Yuschenkoff, C Bolch, K Phair, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  53, \"Retrospective analysis of mortality causes in managed Kirk's dik-diks (Madoqua kirkii) in North America from 1988-2019.\" 349 (2022)","DOI":"10.1638\/2021-0005"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E Br\u00f8ndum, JM Hasenkam, NH Secher, et al.  \"Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.\"  297, \"Jugular venous pooling during lowering of the head affects blood pressure of the anesthetized giraffe.\" R1058 (2009)","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.90804.2008"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Bush, DG Grobler, JP Raath, et al.  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  218, \"Use of medetomidine and ketamine for immobilization of free-ranging giraffes.\" 245 (2001)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2001.218.245"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"P Buss, F Olea-Popelka, L Meyer, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  46, \"Evaluation of cardiorespiratory, blood gas, and lactate values during extended immobilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum).\" 224 (2015)","DOI":"10.1638\/2014-0089r.1"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Leclerc, B Lamglait, T Petit, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  47, \"Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) mortality in European zoological institutions: a retrospective study.\" 531 (2016)","DOI":"10.1638\/2015-0214.1"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PP Calle  and JC Bornmann  \"Zoo Biol.\"  7, \"Giraffe restraint, habituation, and desensitization at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo.\" 243 (1988)","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.1430070306"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MF Bertelsen, C Gr\u00f8ndahl, GF Stegmann, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  48, \"Accuracy of noninvasive anesthetic monitoring in the anesthetized giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).\" 609 (2017)","DOI":"10.1638\/2016-0276.1"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Laurenza, L Ansart, K Portier,  \"Front Vet Sci.\"  6, \"Risk factors of anesthesia-related mortality and morbidity in one equine hospital: a retrospective study on 1,161 cases undergoing elective or emergency surgeries.\" 514 (2020)","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00514"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MR Davis, JN Langan, ND Mylniczenko, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  40, \"Colonic obstruction in three captive reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata).\" 181 (2009)","DOI":"10.1638\/2008-0102.1"},{"key":"35","unstructured":"T Storms, J Raines, M Connolly,  \"Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet.\"  \"The use of controlled induction to minimize traumatic injury to reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) using thiafentanil, medetomidine, and ketamine.\" 34 (2012)"}],"container-title":["Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T22:16:57Z","timestamp":1791238617000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-zoo-and-wildlife-medicine\/volume-56\/issue-3\/2024-0111\/EVALUATION-OF-THIAFENTANIL-MEDETOMIDINE-KETAMINE-COMBINATIONS-FOR-ANESTHESIA-WITHOUT-THE\/10.1638\/2024-0111.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1638\/2024-0111","relation":{},"ISSN":["1042-7260","1937-2825"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1042-7260","type":"print"},{"value":"1937-2825","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]}}}