{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T22:52:04Z","timestamp":1791240724928,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"American Association of Zoo Veterinarians","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>While rabies has not been reported in northern sea otters (Enydra lutris kenyoni), it is an infection with severe implications. The World Organization for Animal Health considers a serum titer of at least 0.5 IU\/ml as adequate when importing vaccinated domesticated animals into rabies-free areas, a standard often used for zoological species. A few facilities have vaccinated sea otters against rabies, but titers were not analyzed. Production of serum neutralizing antibodies to rabies was evaluated following vaccination of 15 northern sea otters from the Alaska SeaLife Center and the Minnesota Zoo using the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test. No animals had measurable titers prior to vaccination, and all 15 animals demonstrated antibody production post-vaccination. Titers were evaluated at different intervals (30\u2013834 days) post-vaccination and were found at or above 0.5 IU\/ml in 10\/10 otters at approximately one month, 3\/3 at two months, 6\/7 at three months, 1\/2 at five months, and 2\/6 at 6\u201313 months. Three animals received a booster vaccination one year post initial vaccination, resulting in increased titers in all three one year later. No adverse reactions to vaccination were noted. If the prevailing epidemiological landscape deems rabies to be a concern, booster vaccinations could be considered after 3\u20134 months to increase the likelihood of adequate protection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1638\/2024-0138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]],"date-time":"2025-10-01T09:03:21Z","timestamp":1759309401000},"page":"689-693","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["SERUM ANTIBODY RESPONSE TO RABIES VACCINATION IN NORTHERN SEA OTTERS (ENYDRA LUTRIS KENYONI)"],"prefix":"10.1638","volume":"56","author":[{"given":"Casey L.","family":"Martinez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janine F. R.","family":"Seetahal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Rivas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline E. C.","family":"Goertz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1213","reference":[{"key":"2","unstructured":"\"Update on confirmed cases of rabies in Cape Fur Seals. City of Cape Town, South Africa.\"  (2024)"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CA De Pijper, PPAM van Thiel, D van de Beek, et al.  \"Travel Med Infect Dis.\"  64, \"Rabies in humans: A treatment approach.\" 102813 (2025)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2025.102813"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AC. Jackson,  \"Curr Infect Dis Rep.\"  18, \"Human rabies: a 2016 update.\" 38 (2016)","DOI":"10.1007\/s11908-016-0540-y"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AC. Jackson,  \"Rabies: scientific basis of the disease and its management.\"  \"Therapy of human rabies.\" 547 (2020)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818705-0.00017-0"},{"key":"7","unstructured":"DL Knobel, S Cleaveland, PG Coleman, et al.  \"Bull World Health Organ.\"  83, \"Re-evaluating the burden of rabies in Africa and Asia.\" 360 (2005)"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"X Ma, C Boutelle, S Bonaparte, et al.  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  262, \"Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2022.\" 1518 (2024)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.24.05.0354"},{"key":"9","unstructured":"M. Maja,  \"Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development, Republic of South Africa.\"  \"Rabies in Cape fur seals: outbreak update report.\" 2024"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RS Mani, AM Anand, SN Madhusudana,  \"Trop Med Int Health.\"  21, \"Human rabies in India: an audit from a rabies diagnostic laboratory.\" 556 (2016)","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12669"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SM Moore, A Gilbert, A Vos, et al.  \"Trop Med Int Health.\"  2, \"Rabies virus antibodies from oral vaccination as a correlate of protection against lethal infection in wildlife.\" 31 (2017)","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed2030031"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KE Quesenberry  and R de Matos  \"Ferrets, rabbits, and rodents: Clinical medicine and surgery.\"  \"Basic approach to veterinary care of ferrets.\" 13 (2020)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-48435-0.00002-2"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"FE Sorhage, S Slavinski, P Ettestad, et al.  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  248, \"Compendium of Animal Rabies Prevention and Control, 2016.\" 505 (2016)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.248.5.505"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Velasco-Villa, SA Reeder, LA Orciari, et al.  \"Emerg Infect Dis.\"  14, \"Enzootic rabies elimination from dogs and reemergence in wild terrestrial carnivores, United States.\" 1849 (2008)","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1412.080876"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LL. Wade,  \"Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract.\"  21, \"Vaccination of ferrets for rabies and distemper.\" 105 (2018)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvex.2017.08.004"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PJ Walker, J Freitas-Ast\u00faa, N Bejerman, et al.  \"J Gen Virol.\"  2022, \"ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Rhabdoviridae 2022.\" 103","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001689"},{"key":"22","unstructured":"\"Terrestrial animal health code [Internet].\"  2, \"Infection with rabies virus.\" 2024"},{"key":"23","unstructured":"\"Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals [Internet].\"  \"Rabies (infection with rabies virus and other lyssaviruses).\" (2024)"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KG Sobey, R Rosatte, P Bachmann, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  46, \"Field evaluation of an inactivated vaccine to control raccoon rabies in Ontario, Canada.\" 818 (2010)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-46.3.818"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CE Rupprecht, J Gilbert, R Pitts, et al.  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  196, \"Evaluation of an inactivated rabies virus vaccine in domestic ferrets.\" 1614 (1990)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1990.196.10.1614"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SM. Moore,  \"Viruses.\"  13, \"Challenges of rabies serology: Defining context of interpretation.\" 1516 (2021)","DOI":"10.3390\/v13081516"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"OA Odegaard  and J Krogsrud  \"Vet Rec.\"  109, \"Rabies in Svalbard: Infection diagnosed in arctic fox, reindeer and seal.\" 141 (1981)","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.109.7.141"},{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MF. Aubert,  \"Rev Sci Tech.\"  11, \"Practical significance of rabies antibodies in cats and dogs.\" 735 (1992)","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.11.3.622"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LJ Kennedy, M Lunt, A Barnes, et al.  \"Vaccine.\"  25, \"Factors influencing the antibody response of dogs vaccinated against rabies.\" 8500 (2007)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2007.10.015"},{"key":"21","unstructured":"\"WHO expert consultation on rabies: Third report.\"  (2018)"}],"container-title":["Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T22:00:33Z","timestamp":1791237633000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-zoo-and-wildlife-medicine\/volume-56\/issue-3\/2024-0138\/SERUM-ANTIBODY-RESPONSE-TO-RABIES-VACCINATION-IN-NORTHERN-SEA-OTTERS\/10.1638\/2024-0138.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1638\/2024-0138","relation":{},"ISSN":["1042-7260","1937-2825"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1042-7260","type":"print"},{"value":"1937-2825","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]}}}