{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:51:31Z","timestamp":1791244291298,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Association of Avian Veterinarians (AAV)","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>There are few studies evaluating safe and effective sedatives for wild birds. Most sedatives are injectable drugs that are commonly administered intramuscularly (IM) or subcutaneously (SC); however, needle injuries occasionally occur from the bird struggling during the injection. Previous research in parrots and other bird species explored the effects of intranasal (IN) midazolam compared with IM administration; however, this delivery method has not been well studied in wild birds, such as raptors. To our knowledge, there is only 1 study that has been published evaluating midazolam IN in a raptor. In the present study, we compared midazolam sedation via IM and IN administration in great horned owls (Bubo virginianus; GHOW). Six GHOWs were randomly assigned to receive midazolam at 2 mg\/kg IN or IM using a crossover study design. For each treatment type, sedation score, heart rate, respiratory rate, and muscle tone were recorded. Linear mixed models were used to interpret and compare the data. Results for both IN and IM treatments showed no significant difference in onset of sedation, overall muscle tone in the wings, legs, and jaw, heart rate, or respiratory rate over time. These data indicate that IN midazolam sedation at the same dose used IM is a viable option for sedation of GHOWs. Further research is needed for other species of raptors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1647\/avianms-d-24-00047","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T03:46:52Z","timestamp":1757389612000},"page":"139-144","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Comparison of Intramuscular and Intranasal Midazolam in Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus)"],"prefix":"10.1647","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"Michelle G.","family":"Hawkins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Camille","family":"Rushanaedy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel M.","family":"Hirota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hugues","family":"Beaufr\u00e8re","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1222","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y Altundag, T Kurt, S \u00d6zsoy,  \"Veterinarski Arhiv.\"  91, \"Clinical evaluation of the intranasal administration of midazolam and reverse effects of flumazenil in Eurasian Buzzards (Buteo buteo).\" 655 (2021)","DOI":"10.24099\/vet.arhiv.1112"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GA Trevisan, E Silva, A Carvalho,  \"Cienc Anim Bras.\"  17, \"Anesthetics effects of intranasal or intramuscular association of midazolam and racemic or S+ ketamine in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus).\" 126 (2016)","DOI":"10.1590\/1089-6891v17i131271"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GA Doss, DM Fink, C Mans,  \"Amer J Vet Res.\"  79, \"Assessment of sedation after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus).\" 1246 (2018)","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.12.1246"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CM Conner, SM Hoppes, BJ Stevens,  \"Amer J Vet Res.\"  2022, \"Intranasal butorphanol and midazolam administered prior to intramuscular alfaxalone provides safe and effective sedation in Quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus).\" 83","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.22.08.0140"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DP Schaffer, NL de Ara\u00fajo, ACS Raposo,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  31, \"Sedative effects of intranasal midazolam administration in wild caught blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) and orange-winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica) parrots.\" 213 (2017)","DOI":"10.1647\/2016-201"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Vesal  and P Zare  \"Vet Anaesth Analg.\"  33, \"Clinical evaluation of intranasal benzodiazepines, alpha-agonists and their antagonists in canaries.\" 143 (2006)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-2995.2005.00244.x"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AS Bigham  and AK Zamani Moghaddam  \"J Vet Pharm Therap.\"  36, \"Finch (Taeneopygia guttata) sedation with intranasal administration of diazepam, midazolam or xylazine.\" 102 (2013)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2009.01102.x"},{"key":"12","unstructured":"S Yayla, E K\u0131l\u0131\u00e7, U Ayd\u0131n,  \"Dicle \u00dcniversitesi Veteriner Fak\u00fcltesi Dergisi.\"  11, \"Comparative evaluation of intramuscular, intranasal, oral and intraosseal administration of midazolam, ketamine combination in quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica).\" 60 (2018)"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"FM Ad\u00e3o, ID Martins, \u00c1AMS Dos Passos,  \"Braz J Vet Med.\"  46, \"Anesthetic effects of the ketamine and midazolam association by intranasal or intramuscular route in domestic chickens: prospective, blinded, randomized and crossover study.\" (2024)","DOI":"10.29374\/2527-2179.bjvm005923"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BN Moresco  and GF Gon\u00e7alves  \"Ci\u00eancia Rural.\"  52, \"Iohexol gastrointestinal transit times in cockatiels under sedation with intranasal midazolam.\" e20210431 (2022)","DOI":"10.1590\/0103-8478cr20210431"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Araghi, S Azizi, N Vesal,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  30, \"Evaluation of the sedative effects of diazepam, midazolam, and xylazine after intranasal administration in juvenile ostriches (Struthio camelus).\" 221 (2016)","DOI":"10.1647\/2015-110"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RL Net, DM Mulcahy, A Santamaria-Bouvier,  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  50, \"Intranasal administration of midazolam hydrochloride improves survival in female surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) surgically implanted with intracoelomic transmitters.\" 167 (2019)","DOI":"10.1638\/2018-0115"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Chang, CB Legg-St Pierre, B Ambros,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  36, \"Comparison of sedative sffects of alfaxalone-ketamine and alfaxalone-midazolam administered intramuscularly in chickens.\" 21 (2022)","DOI":"10.1647\/20-00111"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Sosa-Higareda, D Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, HK Knych,  \"Am J Vet Res.\"  2023, \"High bioavailability, short half-life, and metabolism into hydromorphone-3-glucuronide following single intramuscular and intravenous administration of hydromorphone hydrochloride to great horned owls (Bubo virginianus).\" 84","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.22.12.0218"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T Short, K Young, P Tan,  \"Acta Anaesth Scand.\"  38, \"Midazolam and flumazenil pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics following simultaneous administration to human volunteers.\" 350 (1994)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-6576.1994.tb03906.x"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EL Houck, DS-M Guzman, H Beaufr\u00e8re,  \"Amer J Vet Res.\"  79, \"Evaluation of the thermal antinociceptive effects and pharmacokinetics of hydromorphone hydrochloride after intramuscular administration to cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus).\" 820 (2018)","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.8.820"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PJ Pascoe, BH Pypendop, JC Pavez Phillips,  \"Am J Vet Res.\"  79, \"Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl after intravenous administration in isoflurane-anesthetized red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).\" 606 (2018)","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.79.6.606"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"N Vesal  and MH Eskandari  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  228, \"Sedative effects of midazolam and xylazine with or without ketamine and detomidine alone following intranasal administration in ring-necked parakeets.\" 383 (2006)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.228.3.383"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Mans, DS Guzman, LL Lahner,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  26, \"Sedation and physiologic response to manual restraint after intranasal administration of midazolam in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).\" 130 (2012)","DOI":"10.1647\/2011-037R.1"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AB. Sadegh,  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  44, \"Comparison of intranasal administration of xylazine, diazepam, and midazolam in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus): clinical evaluation.\" 241 (2013)","DOI":"10.1638\/2009-0116R3.1"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Hornak, T Liptak, V Ledecky,  \"Vet Anaesth Analg.\"  42, \"A preliminary trial of the sedation induced by intranasal administration of midazolam alone or in combination with dexmedetomidine and reversal by atipamezole for a short-term immobilization in pigeons.\" 192 (2015)","DOI":"10.1111\/vaa.12187"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GC Escalante, JA Balko, SK Chinnadurai,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  32, \"Comparison of the sedative effects of alfaxalone and butorphanol-midazolam administered intramuscularly in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus).\" 279 (2018)","DOI":"10.1647\/2018-279"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MG Hawkins, BD Wright, PJ Pascoe,  \"Am J Vet Res.\"  64, \"Pharmacokinetics and anesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of propofol in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and great horned owls (Bubo virginianus).\" 677 (2003)","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2003.64.677"}],"container-title":["Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T22:51:44Z","timestamp":1791240704000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-avian-medicine-and-surgery\/volume-39\/issue-3\/AVIANMS-D-24-00047\/Comparison-of-Intramuscular-and-Intranasal-Midazolam-in-Great-Horned-Owls\/10.1647\/AVIANMS-D-24-00047.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1647\/avianms-d-24-00047","relation":{},"ISSN":["1082-6742","1938-2871"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1082-6742","type":"print"},{"value":"1938-2871","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]]}}}