{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:50:47Z","timestamp":1791237047960,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":151,"publisher":"Association of Avian Veterinarians (AAV)","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Parrots (Psittaciformes) comprise a large group of approximately 400 species of birds. There are currently no comprehensive reviews of parrot ophthalmology in the peer-reviewed literature. This review describes the unique ocular variations of parrots, including visual ability and anatomic adaptations. A comprehensive summary of ophthalmic diagnostic tests, including aqueous tear measurements, tonometry, conjunctival cytology, conjunctival microbiology, and ocular ultrasonography, in clinically normal psittacine birds is presented. Common ocular disorders of parrots and their treatments are discussed. Aqueous tear production can be measured using Schirmer tear tests, phenol red thread tests, and endodontic absorbent paper point tear tests. Intraocular pressure is best measured with a rebound tonometer; however, applanation tonometry has also been described. Conjunctival cytology, conjunctival microbiology, and ocular ultrasonography are useful in determining disease etiopathology. Topical neuromuscular blocking agents may be effectively used with caution to induce pharmacologic mydriasis in psittacine birds. Ongoing research should be performed on all available psittacine bird species to increase sample size and available data from which normal reference intervals can be determined.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1647\/avianms-d-25-00013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T09:32:32Z","timestamp":1779269552000},"page":"141-161","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Psittacine Bird Ophthalmology: A Review of Anatomy, Physiology, Diagnostics, and Interventions"],"prefix":"10.1647","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Noah M.","family":"Plotsker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauren E.","family":"Thielen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erin M.","family":"Scott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1222","reference":[{"key":"144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JE Graham, C Kollias-Baker, AL Craigmill,  \"J Vet Pharmacol Ther.\"  28, \"Pharmacokinetics of ketoprofen in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica).\" 399 (2005)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2005.00673.x"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EL Halsmer, JJ Heatley, EM Scott,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  26, \"Clinical ophthalmic parameters of the quaker parrot (Myiopsitta monachus).\" 428 (2023)","DOI":"10.1111\/vop.13049"},{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RC Lehmkuhl, MF Almeida, MJ Mamprim,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  13, \"B-mode ultrasonography biometry of the Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) eye.\" 26 (2010)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-5224.2010.00797.x"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Mon\u00e7\u00e3o-Silva, R Ofri, AC Raposo,  \"J Exotic Pet Med.\"  25, \"Ophthalmic diagnostic tests in parrots (Amazona amazonica) and (Amazona aestiva).\" 186 (2016)","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jepm.2016.05.002"},{"key":"23","unstructured":"GL. 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Keymer,  \"Avian Pathol.\"  6, \"Cataracts in birds.\" 335 (1997)","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457708418243"},{"key":"107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KL Rainwater, JM Sykes, JS Sapienza,  \"J Zoo Wild Med.\"  46, \"Retrospective investigation of cataract management in avian species in a zoologic collection.\" 858 (2015)","DOI":"10.1638\/2015-0071.1"},{"key":"112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AB Sigmund, MP Jones, DA Ward,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  22, \"Long-term outcome of phacoemulsification in raptors-A retrospective study (1999-2014).\" 360 (2019)","DOI":"10.1111\/vop.12624"},{"key":"113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Sritrakoon, K Sutasha, C Kasorndorkbua,  \"Open Vet J.\"  11, \"Bilateral cataracts extraction by lens aspiration and foldable intraocular lens implantation in a black kite (Milvus migrans).\" 441 (2021)","DOI":"10.5455\/OVJ.2021.v11.i3.17"},{"key":"114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AC Lewin, RM Riedel, P Queiroz-Williams,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  37, \"Successful surgical removal of the crystalline lenses in a black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus).\" 41 (2023)","DOI":"10.1647\/22-00011"},{"key":"115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ML Church, DR Priehs, H Denis,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  21, \"Technique, postoperative complications, and visual outcomes of phacoemulsification cataract surgery in 21 penguins (27 eyes): 2011-2015.\" 612 (2018)","DOI":"10.1111\/vop.12555"},{"key":"116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SE Kuhn, DVH Hendrix, MP Jones,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  18, \"Biometry, keratometry, and calculation of intraocular lens power for the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus).\" 106 (2015)","DOI":"10.1111\/vop.12120"},{"key":"117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Cococcetta, T Collarile, M Masi,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  24, \"Antemortem diagnosis of congenital glaucoma in a white-bellied caique (Pionites leucogaster).\" 93 (2021)","DOI":"10.1111\/vop.12821"},{"key":"118","unstructured":"R Korbel  and EH Sch\u00e4ffer  \"Tierarztliche Praxis.\"  19, \"The occurrence of conjunctivitis of unknown etiology in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus, Shaw 1805).\" 659 (1991)"},{"key":"121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RC Turner, JE Graham, S Hahn,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  33, \"Infraorbital keratin cyst in an umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba).\" 150 (2019)","DOI":"10.1647\/2018-342"},{"key":"122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Demir, KG \u00d6zsemir, \u00d6E Bama\u00e7,  \"Erciyes \u00dcniv Vet Fak Derg.\"  17, \"Squamous cell carcinoma of the third eyelid membrane in an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus).\" 84 (2020)","DOI":"10.32707\/ercivet.655020"},{"key":"123","unstructured":"AH Brightman  and TJ Burke  \"Modern Vet Pract.\"  59, \"Eyelid tumor in a parakeet.\" 683 (1978)"},{"key":"124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DK Styles, EK Tomaszewski, LA Jaeger,  \"Virology.\"  325, \"Psittacid herpesviruses associated with mucosal papillomas in neotropical parrots.\" 24 (2004)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2004.04.033"},{"key":"126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JE Darden, SM Hoppes, AM Aceino,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  35, \"Uveal malignant melanoma in a hybrid macaw parrot (Ara chloropterus \u00d7 Ara militaris).\" 367 (2021)","DOI":"10.1647\/20-00100"},{"key":"128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MY Gulbahar, A Ozak, T Guven\u00e7,  \"Avian Pathol.\"  34, \"Retrobulbar rhabdomyosarcoma in a budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus).\" 486 (2005)","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450500368243"},{"key":"130","unstructured":"TW. 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Salminen,  \"J Ocul Pharmacol.\"  6, \"Review: systemic absorption of topically applied ocular drugs in humans.\" 243 (1990)","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.1990.6.243"},{"key":"140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NM Davies  and KE Anderson  \"Clin Pharmacokinet.\"  33, \"Clinical pharmacokinetics of diclofenac. Therapeutic insights and pitfalls.\" 184 (1997)","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-199733030-00003"},{"key":"145","unstructured":"GH Wilson, S Divers, S Budsberg,  \"Proc Assoc Avian Vet Conf.\"  \"Pharmacokinetics and use of meloxicam in psittacine birds.\" 7 (2005)"},{"key":"146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V Naidoo, K Wolter, AD Cromart,  \"J Vet Pharmacol Ther.\"  31, \"The pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in vultures.\" 128 (2008)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2007.00923.x"},{"key":"147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CE Plummer, EO MacKay, KN Gelatt,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  9, \"Comparison of the effects of topical administration of a fixed combination of dorzolamide-timolol to monotherapy with timolol or dorzolamide on IOP, pupil size, and heart rate in glaucomatous dogs.\" 245 (2006)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-5224.2006.00469.x"},{"key":"148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"IJM Slenter, SC Djajadiningrat-Laanen, DJ Elders,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  23, 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(2019)","DOI":"10.1647\/2018-356"},{"key":"102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Fordham, K Rosenthal, A Durham,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  13, \"Intraocular osteosarcoma in an umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba).\" 103 (2010)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-5224.2010.00798.x"},{"key":"129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AB Alexander, L Griffin, MS Johnston,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  31, \"Radiation therapy of periorbital lymphoma in a blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna).\" 39 (2016)","DOI":"10.1647\/2015-116"},{"key":"133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JE Graham, JA Werner, LJ Lowenstine,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  17, \"Periorbital liposarcoma in an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus).\" 147 (2003)","DOI":"10.1647\/2002-019"},{"key":"119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Malik, MB Krockenberger, G Cross,  \"Med Mycol.\"  41, \"Avian cryptococcosis.\" 115 (2003)","DOI":"10.1080\/mmy.41.2.115.124"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ES Storey, DA Carboni, MT Kearney,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  235, \"Use of phenol red thread tests to evaluate tear production in clinically normal Amazon parrots and comparison with Schirmer tear test findings.\" 1181 (2009)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.235.10.1181"},{"key":"127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MR Nau, JW Carpenter, D Lin,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  31, \"Mucoepidermoid carcinoma in the skull of an orange-winged Amazon parrot (Amazona amazonica).\" 225 (2017)","DOI":"10.1647\/2016-209"},{"key":"120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Stiles  and C Greenacre  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  15, \"Infraorbital cyst in a white cockatoo (Cacatua alba).\" 40 (2001)","DOI":"10.1647\/1082-6742(2001)015[0040:ICIAWC]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Baine, DVH Hendrix, SE Kuhn,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  30, \"The efficacy and safety of topical rocuronium bromide to induce bilateral mydriasis in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis).\" 8 (2016)","DOI":"10.1647\/2015-083"},{"key":"59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Barsotti, A Briganti, JR Spratte,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  13, \"Bilateral mydriasis in common buzzards (Buteo buteo) and little owls (Athene noctua) induced by concurrent topical administration of rocuronium bromide.\" 35 (2010)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-5224.2010.00808.x"},{"key":"57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Barsotti, A Briganti, JR Spratte,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  26, \"Safety and efficacy of bilateral topical application of rocuronium bromide for mydriasis in European kestrels (Falco tinnunculus).\" 1 (2012)","DOI":"10.1647\/2011-002.1"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RL Swinger, JN Langan, R Hamor,  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  40, \"Ocular bacterial flora, tear production, and intraocular pressure in a captive flock of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti).\" 430 (2009)","DOI":"10.1638\/2007-0126.1"},{"key":"81","unstructured":"A Bayon, E Vecino, A Albert,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  9, \"Evaluation of intraocular pressure obtained by two tonometers, and their correlations with corneal thickness obtained by pachymetry in raptors.\" 426 (2006)"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E Holt, K Rosenthal, FS Shofer,  \"Vet Ophthalmol.\"  9, \"The phenol red thread tear test in large Psittaciformes.\" 109 (2006)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1463-5224.2006.00450.x"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MP Jones, KE Pierce, D Ward,  \"J Exotic Pet Med.\"  16, \"Avian vision: a review of form and function with special consideration to birds of prey.\" 69 (2007)","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jepm.2007.03.012"},{"key":"136","unstructured":"TW Dukes  and JR Pettit  \"Can J Comp Med.\"  47, \"Avian ocular neoplasia\u2013a description of spontaneously occurring cases.\" 33 (1983)"},{"key":"108","unstructured":"AM 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Keller,  \"Can Vet J.\"  33, \"Bilateral extraction of cataracts in a crow.\" 273 (1992)"},{"key":"109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RT Carter, CJ Murphy, CM Stuhr,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  230, \"Bilateral phacoemulsification and intraocular lens implantation in a great horned owl.\" 559 (2007)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.230.4.559"},{"key":"111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"TJ Kern, CJ Murphy, RC Riis,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  185, \"Lens extraction by phacoemulsification in two raptors.\" 1403 (1984)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1984.185.11.1403"},{"key":"134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"IM Langohr, MM Garner, M Kiupel,  \"Vet Pathol.\"  49, \"Somatotroph pituitary tumors in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus).\" 503 (2012)","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985811419530"},{"key":"143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Baert  and P De Backer  \"Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol.\"  134, \"Comparative pharmacokinetics of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in five bird species.\" 25 (2003)","DOI":"10.1016\/S1532-0456(02)00184-9"},{"key":"141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Jayson, D Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, O Petritz,  \"J Avian Med Surg.\"  28, \"Medical management of acute ocular hypertension in a western screech owl (Megascops kennicottii).\" 38 (2014)","DOI":"10.1647\/2012-079"},{"key":"53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Coli, MR Stornelli, G Barsotti,  \"Int J Morphol.\"  34, \"Morphological study of the iris musculature in diurnal and nocturnal raptors.\" 503 (2016)","DOI":"10.4067\/S0717-95022016000200016"},{"key":"58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Barsotti, M Asti, E Giani,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  255, \"Effect of topical ophthalmic instillation of rocuronium bromide on the intraocular pressure of kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and little owls (Athene noctuae).\" 1359 (2019)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.255.12.1359"},{"key":"142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Baert  and P De Backer  \"J Vet Pharmacol Ther.\"  25, \"Disposition of sodium salicylate, flunixin and meloxicam after intravenous administration in broiler chickens.\" 449 (2002)","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2885.2002.00441.x"}],"container-title":["Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T20:53:48Z","timestamp":1791233628000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-avian-medicine-and-surgery\/volume-40\/issue-2\/AVIANMS-D-25-00013\/Psittacine-Bird-Ophthalmology--A-Review-of-Anatomy-Physiology-Diagnostics\/10.1647\/AVIANMS-D-25-00013.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"references-count":151,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1647\/avianms-d-25-00013","relation":{},"ISSN":["1082-6742","1938-2871"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1082-6742","type":"print"},{"value":"1938-2871","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]}}}