{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T12:13:50Z","timestamp":1774527230380,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"Cogitatio","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774483200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["SI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transport\u2010related equity is gaining increasing attention, highlighting the need for a system that is equitable, accessible, and affordable for all. From a spatial perspective, the spatial distribution of transport infrastructure plays a key role in mitigating socio\u2010spatial inequalities. Since Covid\u201019, teleworking has become more prominent across sectors, raising questions about the equity implications of remote work. This study examines the spatial distribution of commuting burden (CB), as the ratio of travel costs to wages, across the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and tests the hypothesis that telework increases inequality in CB distribution rather than alleviating it. We analyse CB before and after increased telework adoption, integrating occupational typologies, wage levels, and telework potential at the civil parish level. Generalised commuting costs are estimated using travel time and distance by mode, fare structure, and value of time. An adapted Palma index assesses the equity impact of telework on CB distribution, identifying areas of compound burden or benefit. The findings confirm that despite a general decline in average CB under the telework scenario, inequality increases, as measured by the Palma index. High\u2010wage workers in skilled occupations, predominantly located in more central or well\u2010connected areas which already have a lower CB, gain disproportionate advantages from telework. Conversely, low\u2010wage workers in peripheral areas face both higher CB and limited telework capacity. This suggests telework, in its current distribution logic, exacerbates rather than mitigates socio\u2010spatial disparities. The study underscores the need to embed telework within equitable urban planning frameworks that address the structural causes of socio\u2010territorial fragmentation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.17645\/si.11629","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T11:15:33Z","timestamp":1774523733000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Commuting Burden Distribution: The Equity Effects of the New Work Dynamics on the Lisbon Metropolitan Area"],"prefix":"10.17645","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2817-8129","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julianno","family":"De Menezes Amorim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7893-2671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"De Abreu e Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6781-5149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"6951","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allen, T. D., Golden, T. D., & Shockley, K. M. (2015). How effective is telecommuting? Assessing the status of our scientific findings. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16(2), 40\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1529100615593273","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100615593273"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amorim, J. D. M., & de Abreu e Silva, J. E. (2024). Comparing the application of different justice theories in equity analysis of transit projects: A case study of the Lisbon Metro Circular Line. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 17(1), 21\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5198\/jtlu.2024.1895","DOI":"10.5198\/jtlu.2024.1895"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ben-Elia, E., & Benenson, I. (2019). A spatially-explicit method for analyzing the equity of transit commuters\u2019 accessibility. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 120, 31\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tra.2018.11.017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2018.11.017"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choudhury, C. F., Yang, L., de Abreu e Silva, J., & Ben-Akiva, M. (2018). Modelling preferences for smart modes and services: A case study in Lisbon. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 115, 15\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tra.2017.07.005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2017.07.005"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Abreu e Silva, J., & Melo, P. C. (2018). Home telework, travel behavior, and land-use patterns: A path analysis of British single-worker households. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 11(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5198\/jtlu.2018.1134","DOI":"10.5198\/jtlu.2018.1134"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Ciommo, F., & Shiftan, Y. (2017). Transport equity analysis. Transport Reviews, 37(2), 139\u2013151. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01441647.2017.1278647","DOI":"10.1080\/01441647.2017.1278647"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dingel, J. I., & Neiman, B. (2020). How many jobs can be done at home? Journal of Public Economics, 189, Article 104235. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2020.104235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2020.104235"},{"key":"ref8","unstructured":"Dire\u00e7\u00e3o-Geral de Energia e Geologia. (2025). Pre\u00e7o dos combust\u00edveis online. https:\/\/precoscombustiveis.dgeg.gov.pt"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dodson, J., Li, T., Taylor, E., & Goldie, X. (2020). Commuting burden and housing affordability for low-income renters (AHURI Final Report No. 335). Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18408\/ahuri5320201","DOI":"10.18408\/ahuri5320201"},{"key":"ref10","unstructured":"Esri. (2023). ArcGIS Pro (Version 3.3) [Computer software]. https:\/\/www.esri.com\/en-us\/arcgis\/products\/arcgis-pro"},{"key":"ref11","unstructured":"Eurofound. (2020). Telework and ICT-based mobile work: Flexible working in the digital age. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2806\/337167"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farber, S., & Grandez, M. (2017). Transit accessibility, land development and socioeconomic priority: A typology of planned station catchment areas in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 10(1). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5198\/JTLU.2017.980","DOI":"10.5198\/jtlu.2017.980"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farber, S., Morang, M. Z., & Widener, M. J. (2014). Temporal variability in transit-based accessibility to supermarkets. Applied Geography, 53, 149\u2013159. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.apgeog.2014.06.012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2014.06.012"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Florida, R., Rodr\u00edguez-Pose, A., & Storper, M. (2023). Critical commentary: Cities in a post-Covid world. Urban Studies, 60(8), 1509\u20131531. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00420980211018072","DOI":"10.1177\/00420980211018072"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fransen, K., Neutens, T., Farber, S., De Maeyer, P., Deruyter, G., & Witlox, F. (2015). Identifying public transport gaps using time-dependent accessibility levels. Journal of Transport Geography, 48, 176\u2013187. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2015.09.008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2015.09.008"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gokan, T., Kichko, S., Matheson, J. A., & Thisse, J.-F. (2022). How the rise of teleworking will reshape labor markets and cities (CESifo Working Paper No. 9952). Center for Economic Studies; ifo Institute. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.4235466","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4235466"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f6ssling, S. (2016). Urban transport justice. Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 1\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2016.05.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2016.05.002"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guzman, L. A., & Oviedo, D. (2018). Accessibility, affordability and equity: Assessing \u2018pro-poor\u2019 public transport subsidies in Bogot\u00e1. Transport Policy, 68, 37\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tranpol.2018.04.012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2018.04.012"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haxhija, S., Duran-Rodas, D., Larriva, M. T. B., & Wulfhorst, G. (2024). A mobility justice framework to prioritize areas for mobility interventions. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 56, Article 101192. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/J.RTBM.2024.101192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rtbm.2024.101192"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herszenhut, D., Pereira, R. H. M., Portugal, L. D. S., & Oliveira, M. H. D. S. (2022). The impact of transit monetary costs on transport inequality. Journal of Transport Geography, 99, Article 103309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2022.103309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2022.103309"},{"key":"ref21","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica. (2010). Classifica\u00e7\u00e3o Portuguesa das Profiss\u00f5es."},{"key":"ref22","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica. (2022). Censos 2021: XVI recenseamento geral da popula\u00e7\u00e3o: Resultados definitivos [Data set]. https:\/\/mapas.ine.pt\/download\/index2021.phtml"},{"key":"ref23","unstructured":"Instituto Nacional de Estat\u00edstica. (2024). Trabalho a partir de casa\u2014M\u00f3dulo ad hoc do inqu\u00e9rito ao emprego."},{"key":"ref24","unstructured":"International Energy Agency. (2021). Global Fuel Economy Initiative 2021. https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/global-fuel-economy-initiative-2021"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaplan, S., Popoks, D., Prato, C. G., & Ceder, A. (2014). Using connectivity for measuring equity in transit provision. Journal of Transport Geography, 37, 82\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2014.04.016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2014.04.016"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karner, A., Pereira, R. H. M., & Farber, S. (2024). Advances and pitfalls in measuring transportation equity. Transportation, 52, 1399\u20131427. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S11116-023-10460-7","DOI":"10.1007\/s11116-023-10460-7"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kazekami, S. (2020). Mechanisms to improve labor productivity by performing telework. Telecommunications Policy, 44(2), Article 101868. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.telpol.2019.101868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2019.101868"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, T., Dodson, J., & Goldie, X. (2021). Urban structure, commuting burden, and employment status of labour forces in an Australian city. Journal of Transport Geography, 93, Article 103072. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2021.103072","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2021.103072"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Guan, H., Qin, W., & Ji, X. (2023). Collective and individual spatial equity measure in public transit accessibility based on generalized travel cost. Research in Transportation Economics, 98, Article 101263. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.retrec.2023.101263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.retrec.2023.101263"},{"key":"ref30","unstructured":"Litman, T. (2022, April). Evaluating transportation equity: Guidance for incorporating distributional impacts in transport planning. ITE Journal, 92(4). https:\/\/vtpi.org\/Litman_ITEJ_Equity_Apr2022.pdf"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Cao, M., Yang, T., Ma, L., Wu, M., Cheng, L., & Ye, R. (2022). Inequalities in the commuting burden: Institutional constraints and job-housing relationships in Tianjin, China. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 42, Article 100545. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rtbm.2020.100545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rtbm.2020.100545"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, D., Kwan, M. P., & Kan, Z. (2022). Assessing job-access inequity for transit-based workers across space and race with the Palma ratio. Urban Research & Practice, 15(5), 746\u2013772. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17535069.2021.1923795","DOI":"10.1080\/17535069.2021.1923795"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lucas, K. (2012). Transport and social exclusion: Where are we now? Transport Policy, 20, 105\u2013113. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tranpol.2012.01.013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2012.01.013"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madanipour, A., Shucksmith, M., & Brooks, E. (2022). The concept of spatial justice and the European Union\u2019s territorial cohesion. European Planning Studies, 30(5), 807\u2013824. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09654313.2021.1928040","DOI":"10.1080\/09654313.2021.1928040"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maheshwari, R., Van Acker, V., & Gerber, P. (2024). Commuting vs teleworking: How does it impact the relationship between commuting satisfaction and subjective well-being. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 182, Article 104041. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tra.2024.104041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2024.104041"},{"key":"ref36","unstructured":"Martens, K. (2017). Transport justice: Designing fair transportation systems (1st ed.). Routledge."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagler, M., Rincke, J., & Winkler, E. (2024). Working from home, commuting, and gender. Journal of Population Economics, 37(3), Article 58. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/S00148-024-01035-6","DOI":"10.1007\/s00148-024-01035-6"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nilles, J. (1975). Telecommunications and organizational decentralization. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 23(10), 1142\u20131147. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TCOM.1975.1092687","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1975.1092687"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oviedo, D., & Guzman, L. A. (2020). Revisiting accessibility in a context of sustainable transport: Capabilities and inequalities in Bogot\u00e1. Sustainability, 12(11), Article 4464. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/su12114464","DOI":"10.3390\/su12114464"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palma, J. G., & Stiglitz, J. E. (2016). Do nations just get the inequality they deserve? The \u201cPalma Ratio\u201d re-examined. In K. Basu & J. E. Stiglitz (Eds.), Inequality and growth: Patterns and policy (pp. 35\u201397). Palgrave Macmillan. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1057\/9781137554598_2","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137554598_2"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, R. H. M., & Karner, A. (2021). Transportation equity. In R. Vickerman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Transportation. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/B978-0-08-102671-7.10053-3","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-102671-7.10053-3"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, R. H. M., Schwanen, T., & Banister, D. (2017). Distributive justice and equity in transportation. Transport Reviews, 37(2), 170\u2013191. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01441647.2016.1257660","DOI":"10.1080\/01441647.2016.1257660"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Preston, J., & Raj\u00e9, F. (2007). Accessibility, mobility and transport-related social exclusion. Journal of Transport Geography, 15(3), 151\u2013160. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2006.05.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2006.05.002"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pritchard, J. P., Tomasiello, D., Giannotti, M., & Geurs, K. (2019). An International Comparison of Equity in Accessibility to Jobs: London, S\u00e3o Paulo and the Randstad. Transport Findings, 2019(February). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.32866\/7412","DOI":"10.32866\/7412"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigue, J.-P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2017). The geography of transport systems (4th ed.). Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315618159"},{"key":"ref46","unstructured":"Romero-Lankao, P., & Nobler, E. (2021). Energy justice: Key concepts and metrics relevant to EERE transportation projects. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https:\/\/www.nrel.gov\/docs\/fy21osti\/80206.pdf"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schleith, D., & Horner, M. W. (2014). Commuting, job clusters, and travel burdens: Analysis of spatially and socioeconomically disaggregated longitudinal employer\u2013household dynamics data. Transportation Research Record, 2452, 19\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3141\/2452-03","DOI":"10.3141\/2452-03"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, A. d. (2016). Mobilidade urbana e equidade social: possibilidades a partir das recentes pol\u00edticas de transporte p\u00fablico na Metr\u00f3pole do Rio de Janeiro. GOT \u2013 Revista de Geografia e Ordenamento do Territ\u00f3rio, 10, 293\u2013317.","DOI":"10.17127\/got\/2016.10.014"},{"key":"ref49","unstructured":"Sostero, M., Milasi, S., Hurley, J., Fernandez-Macias, E., & Bisello, M. (2020). Teleworkability and the Covid-19 crisis: A new digital divide? European Commission."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, Z., An, R., Zhang, Z., Liu, Y., & Luo, M. (2022). Exploring non-linear and spatially non-stationary relationships between commuting burden and built environment correlates. Journal of Transport Geography, 104, Article 103413. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2022.103413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2022.103413"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Welch, T. F., & Mishra, S. (2013). A measure of equity for public transit connectivity. Journal of Transport Geography, 33, 29\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2013.09.007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2013.09.007"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, P., & Liu, M. (2022). A framework for the spatial inequality in urban public facility for urban planning, design and management. Land, 11(9), Article 1429. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/LAND11091429","DOI":"10.3390\/land11091429"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., He, S., & Zhao, P. (2018). Revisiting inequalities in the commuting burden: Institutional constraints and job\u2013housing relationships in Beijing. Journal of Transport Geography, 71, 58\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2018.06.024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2018.06.024"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, P. (2015). The determinants of the commuting burden of low-income workers: Evidence from Beijing. Environment and Planning A, 47(8), 1736\u20131755. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0308518X15597112","DOI":"10.1177\/0308518X15597112"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, P., & Cao, Y. (2020). Commuting inequity and its determinants in Shanghai: New findings from big-data analytics. Transport Policy, 92, 20\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tranpol.2020.03.006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2020.03.006"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, P., & Li, S. (2016). Restraining transport inequality in growing cities: Can spatial planning play a role? International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 10(10), 947\u2013959. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15568318.2016.1191693","DOI":"10.1080\/15568318.2016.1191693"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, S., Wu, Z., & Cheng, L. (2013). The impact of spatial mismatch on residents in low-income housing neighbourhoods: A study of the Guangzhou Metropolis, China. Urban Studies, 50(9), 1817\u20131835. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0042098012465906","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098012465906"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, P. (2013). Telecommuting, household commute and location choice. Urban Studies, 50(12), 2441\u20132459. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0042098012474520","DOI":"10.1177\/0042098012474520"}],"container-title":["Social Inclusion"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cogitatiopress.com\/socialinclusion\/article\/viewFile\/11629\/5018","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cogitatiopress.com\/socialinclusion\/article\/viewFile\/11629\/5018","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T11:15:55Z","timestamp":1774523755000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cogitatiopress.com\/socialinclusion\/article\/view\/11629"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"references-count":58,"alternative-id":["10.17645\/si.11629"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17645\/si.11629","relation":{},"ISSN":["2183-2803"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2183-2803","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]]},"article-number":"11629"}}