{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T15:13:42Z","timestamp":1778253222645,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"Impact Journals, LLC","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Aging"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"DOI":"10.18632\/aging.206377","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T14:43:07Z","timestamp":1778251387000},"page":"466-512","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The mediating role of DNA methylation clocks in associations of race, ethnicity, education, income, and occupation with mortality: findings from NHANES 1999-2002"],"prefix":"10.18632","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Hanyang","family":"Shen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicole","family":"Gladish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tiffany","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Computational and Mathematical Engineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andres","family":"Cardenas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Belinda L.","family":"Needham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David H.","family":"Rehkopf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Department of Health Policy, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine (Primary Care and Population Health), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"},{"name":"Department of Sociology, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"7892","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3140","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.269.24.3140","article-title":"Socioeconomic inequalities in health. No easy solution.","volume":"26","author":"Adler","year":"1993","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2","first-page":"17","volume-title":"Soc Epidemiol","volume":"2","author":"Glymour","year":"2014"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.18.1.341","article-title":"Measuring social class in US public health research: concepts, methodologies, and guidelines.","volume":"1","author":"Krieger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-6193-3","volume-title":"Fundamental cause theory.","volume":"2013","author":"Phelan"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-060220-042648","article-title":"Social Epidemiology: Past, Present, and Future.","volume":"4","author":"Diez Roux","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arias, Tejada-Vera, Kochanek, Ahmad. Provisional life expectancy estimates for 2021. 2022.","DOI":"10.15620\/cdc:118999"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.21106\/ijma.402","article-title":"Marked Disparities in Life Expectancy by Education, Poverty Level, Occupation, and Housing Tenure in the United States, 1997-2014.","volume":"1","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J MCH AIDS"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-publhealth-040617-014615","article-title":"Increasing Disparities in Mortality by Socioeconomic Status.","volume":"3","author":"Bosworth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00118","article-title":"Special Report: The Biology of Inequalities in Health: The Lifepath Consortium.","volume":"8","author":"Vineis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.23.112001.112349","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and health: the potential role of environmental risk exposure.","volume":"2","author":"Evans","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP199","article-title":"Individual and Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and the Association between Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease.","volume":"12","author":"Chi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-060116-053339","article-title":"Integrating Biomarkers in Social Stratification and Health Research.","volume":"4","author":"Harris","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2005.040816","article-title":"Do biomarkers of stress mediate the relation between socioeconomic status and health?","volume":"6","author":"Dowd","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyu172","volume-title":"Int J Epidemiol","volume":"43","author":"Rehkopf","year":"2014"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-020-00905-6","article-title":"Epigenetic measures of ageing predict the prevalence and incidence of leading causes of death and disease burden.","volume":"1","author":"Hillary","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Epigenetics"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-015-0584-6","article-title":"DNA methylation age of blood predicts all-cause mortality in later life.","volume":"1","author":"Marioni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2018.07.007","article-title":"Early-life socioeconomic disadvantage, not current, predicts accelerated epigenetic aging of monocytes.","volume":"9","author":"Austin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1080\/17501911.2024.2373682","article-title":"Generations of epigenetic clocks and their links to socioeconomic status in the Health and Retirement Study.","volume":"1","author":"Crimmins","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epigenomics"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2020-215608","article-title":"Life course socioeconomic position and DNA methylation age acceleration in mid-life.","volume":"7","author":"George","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2344722","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.44722","article-title":"Racial and Ethnic Residential Segregation and Monocyte DNA Methylation Age Acceleration.","volume":"6","author":"Hicken","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105976","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2022.105976","article-title":"Life-course socioeconomic factors are associated with markers of epigenetic aging in a population-based study.","volume":"14","author":"Petrovic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-022-00338-8","article-title":"Integrating DNA Methylation Measures of Biological Aging into Social Determinants of Health Research.","volume":"9","author":"Raffington","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Environ Health Rep"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0327010","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0327010","article-title":"Racial and ethnic differences in epigenetic aging: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2002.","volume":"2","author":"Needham","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glac041","article-title":"The Role of Epigenetic Clocks in Explaining Educational Inequalities in Mortality: A Multicohort Study and Meta-analysis.","volume":"7","author":"Fiorito","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2019.01.028","article-title":"The role of epigenetic aging in education and racial\/ethnic mortality disparities among older U.S. Women.","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e039751","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.124.039751","article-title":"Impact of DNA-Methylation Age Acceleration on Long-Term Mortality Among US Adults With Cardiovascular-Kidney-Metabolic Syndrome.","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Am Heart Assoc"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e240655","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.0655","article-title":"Educational Mobility, Pace of Aging, and Lifespan Among Participants in the Framingham Heart Study.","volume":"7","author":"Graf","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aab3389","article-title":"Human telomere biology: A contributory and interactive factor in aging, disease risks, and protection.","volume":"35","author":"Blackburn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17312","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407162101","article-title":"Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress.","volume":"10","author":"Epel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2021.7804","article-title":"Association of Telomere Length With Risk of Disease and Mortality.","volume":"18","author":"Schneider","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"djv074","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/djv074","article-title":"Peripheral blood leukocyte telomere length and mortality among 64,637 individuals from the general population.","volume":"10","author":"Rode","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Natl Cancer Inst"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1080\/19485565.2020.1765734","article-title":"Do black\/white differences in telomere length depend on socioeconomic status?","volume":"6","author":"Needham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biodemography Soc Biol"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.03.007","article-title":"Race-related health disparities and biological aging: does rate of telomere shortening differ across blacks and whites?","volume":"9","author":"Rewak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol Psychol"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2025.101892","article-title":"Social support and epigenetic aging at the intersections of race, ethnicity, and gender: findings from NHANES 1999-2002.","volume":"3","author":"Shen","year":"2025","journal-title":"SSM Popul Health"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyz248","article-title":"Reducing socio-economic inequalities in all-cause mortality: a counterfactual mediation approach.","volume":"4","author":"Laine","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e073749","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2022-073749","article-title":"Educational inequalities in mortality and their mediators among generations across four decades: nationwide, population based, prospective cohort study based on the ChinaHEART project.","volume":"38","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e923","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(22)00237-7","article-title":"Educational inequalities and premature mortality: the Cuba Prospective Study.","volume":"7","author":"Ross","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Public Health"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004455","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1004455","article-title":"Behavioral risk factors and socioeconomic inequalities in ischemic heart disease mortality in the United States: A causal mediation analysis using record linkage data.","volume":"2","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.1053","article-title":"Health status and labour force participation: evidence from Australia.","volume":"1","author":"Cai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Health Econ"},{"key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/155.6.520","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and mortality among the elderly: findings from four US communities.","volume":"15","author":"Bassuk","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s13148-025-01864-6","article-title":"Influence of race, ethnicity, and sex on the performance of epigenetic predictors of phenotypic traits.","volume":"1","author":"Khodasevich","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin Epigenetics"},{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2252","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.7654","article-title":"Bootstrap inference when using multiple imputation.","volume":"3","author":"Schomaker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stat Med"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-016-0239-7","article-title":"Assessment of predictive performance in incomplete data by combining internal validation and multiple imputation.","volume":"1","author":"Wahl","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"i2156","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.i2156","article-title":"BMI and all cause mortality: systematic review and non-linear dose-response meta-analysis of 230 cohort studies with 3.74 million deaths among 30.3 million participants.","volume":"35","author":"Aune","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"45","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). NHANES 1999-2002 DNA Methylation Array and Epigenetic Biomarkers. 2024. Available from: https:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/nchs\/nhanes\/dnam\/"},{"key":"46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2007.08.027","article-title":"Education, income and ethnic differences in cumulative biological risk profiles in a national sample of US adults: NHANES III (1988-1994).","volume":"6","author":"Seeman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2006.02.179","article-title":"The association of poverty with the prevalence of albuminuria: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III).","volume":"4","author":"Martins","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis"},{"key":"48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-8-383","article-title":"The non-linear risk of mortality by income level in a healthy population: US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey mortality follow-up cohort, 1988-2001.","volume":"8","author":"Rehkopf","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2012.10.016","article-title":"Genome-wide methylation profiles reveal quantitative views of human aging rates.","volume":"4","author":"Hannum","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol Cell"},{"key":"50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R115","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2013-14-10-r115","article-title":"DNA methylation age of human tissues and cell types.","volume":"1","author":"Horvath","year":"2013","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R24","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2014-15-2-r24","article-title":"Aging of blood can be tracked by DNA methylation changes at just three CpG sites.","volume":"1","author":"Weidner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.100908","article-title":"DNA methylation levels at individual age-associated CpG sites can be indicative for life expectancy.","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2016.00126","article-title":"Simplified Assay for Epigenetic Age Estimation in Whole Blood of Adults.","volume":"8","author":"Vidal-Bralo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front Genet"},{"key":"54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1758","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101508","article-title":"Epigenetic clock for skin and blood cells applied to Hutchinson Gilford Progeria Syndrome andstudies.","volume":"1","author":"Horvath","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0667-1","article-title":"Improved precision of epigenetic clock estimates across tissues and its implication for biological ageing.","volume":"1","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genome Med"},{"key":"56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101414","article-title":"An epigenetic biomarker of aging for lifespan and healthspan.","volume":"1","author":"Levine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101684","article-title":"DNA methylation GrimAge strongly predicts lifespan and healthspan.","volume":"1","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9484","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.204434","article-title":"DNA methylation GrimAge version 2.","volume":"1","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e54870","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.54870","article-title":"Quantification of the pace of biological aging in humans through a blood test, the DunedinPoAm DNA methylation algorithm.","volume":"9","author":"Belsky","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/s13059-016-1064-3","article-title":"Correlation of an epigenetic mitotic clock with cancer risk.","volume":"1","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Biol"},{"key":"61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5895","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.102173","article-title":"DNA methylation-based estimator of telomere length.","volume":"1","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging (Albany NY)"},{"key":"62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2018.05.021","article-title":"Update of the Healthy Eating Index: HEI-2015.","volume":"11","author":"Krebs-Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Acad Nutr Diet"},{"key":"63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S498","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-200009001-00009","article-title":"Compendium of physical activities: an update of activity codes and MET intensities.","volume":"3","author":"Ainsworth","year":"2000","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1097\/00043764-199809000-00010","article-title":"Using the National Death Index to obtain underlying cause of death codes.","volume":"4","author":"Sathiakumar","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btr597","article-title":"MissForest--non-parametric missing value imputation for mixed-type data.","volume":"2","author":"Stekhoven","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e002847","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2013-002847","article-title":"Comparison of imputation methods for missing laboratory data in medicine.","volume":"3","author":"Waljee","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"67","first-page":"175","article-title":"Package \u2018mediation.\u2019","volume":"201","author":"Tingley","journal-title":"Comput Softw Man"}],"container-title":["Aging"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.aging-us.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.18632\/aging.206377","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T14:43:10Z","timestamp":1778251390000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.aging-us.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.18632\/aging.206377"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]}},"alternative-id":["206377"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18632\/aging.206377","relation":{},"ISSN":["1945-4589"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1945-4589","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]]}}}