{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T13:20:42Z","timestamp":1790256042891,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Springer Publishing Company","issue":"6","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Neonatal Network"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,9]]},"abstract":"Apnea is a disorder of respiratory control commonly seen in premature infants. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain apnea, and many clinical conditions have been associated with its development. Apnea of prematurity is seen in infants less than 37 weeks gestation, with the incidence increasing as gestational age decreases. Expert and consistent nursing care is essential for management of premature infants with apnea. This article reviews the differential diagnosis, pathogenesis, and implications for care of apnea of prematurity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1891\/0730-0832.19.6.17","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,5,8]],"date-time":"2012-05-08T07:43:55Z","timestamp":1336463035000},"page":"17-24","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Apnea of Prematurity: Diagnosis, Implications for Care, and Pharmacologic Management"],"prefix":"10.1891","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Karen","family":"Theobald","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carol","family":"Botwinski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Albanna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Mc William","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"793","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2000,9,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Apnea of prematurity: Etiology and management","volume":"2","author":"EC Eichenwald","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neonatal Respiratory Diseases"},{"issue":"5","key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.100.5.795","article-title":"Margin of safety for discharge after apnea in preterm infants","volume":"100","author":"RA Darnall","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"3","first-page":"252","article-title":"Apnoeic attacks","volume-title":"Handbook of Neonatal Care","author":"H Halliday","year":"1998"},{"key":"4","first-page":"494","volume-title":"Neonatology: Management, Procedures, On-Call Problems, Diseases, and Drugs","author":"T Gomella","year":"1999"},{"key":"5","first-page":"374","article-title":"Apnea","volume-title":"Manual of Neonatal Care","author":"A. Stark","year":"1998"},{"issue":"2","key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199002000-00003","article-title":"Periodic breathing and apnea in preterm infants","volume":"27","author":"K Barrington","year":"1990","journal-title":"Pediatric Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.1991.72500","article-title":"The natural history of the appearance of apnea of prematurity","volume":"29","author":"K Barrington","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pediatric Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"8","first-page":"789","article-title":"Apnea of prematurity","volume":"19","author":"MJ Miller","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clinics in Perinatology"},{"issue":"3","key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3955(16)36043-6","article-title":"Infant apnea","volume":"33","author":"AR Spitzer","year":"1986","journal-title":"Pediatric Clinics of North America"},{"key":"10","unstructured":"Austin S. 1995. Evaluation and management of apnea of prematurity. In CSMC NICU Training Files<\/i> [on-line]: www.neonatology.org\/syllabus\/apnea.html<\/a>"},{"key":"11","first-page":"252","article-title":"Assessment and management of respiratory dysfunction","volume-title":"Comprehensive Neonatal Nursing: A Physiologic Perspective","author":"J Cifuentes","year":"1998"},{"issue":"6","key":"12","first-page":"606","article-title":"Apnea of prematurity: Current management and nursing implications","volume":"16","author":"AN. Grisemer","year":"1990","journal-title":"Pediatric Nursing"},{"key":"13","first-page":"267","article-title":"Infant apnea","volume-title":"Neonatology for the Clinician","author":"GI. Martin","year":"1993"},{"key":"14","first-page":"872","article-title":"Pathophysiology of apnea of prematurity","volume-title":"Fetal and Neonatal Physiology","volume":"1","author":"MJ Miller","year":"1992"},{"issue":"24","key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199806113382401","article-title":"Prolongation of the QT interval and the sudden infant death syndrome","volume":"338","author":"PJ Schwartz","year":"1998","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"issue":"5","key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.66.5.574","article-title":"Oxygen saturation and breathing patterns in infancy","volume":"66","author":"CF Poets","year":"1991","journal-title":"Archives of Disease in Childhood"},{"issue":"3","key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-199308000-00007","article-title":"The relationship between bradycardia, apnea, and hypoxemia in preterm infants","volume":"34","author":"CF Poets","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pediatric Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.50.2.219","article-title":"Periodic breathing and apnea in preterm infants: Hypoxia as a primary event","volume":"50","author":"H Rigatto","year":"1972","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"4","key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.66.4_Spec_No.381","article-title":"Apnoea, bradycardia, and oxygen saturation in preterm infants","volume":"66","author":"CJ Upton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Archives of Disease in Childhood"},{"issue":"4","key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1177\/088506669701200403","article-title":"Use of hematopoietic growth factors in the NICU","volume":"12","author":"M Sola","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Intensive Care Medicine"},{"key":"21","first-page":"437","article-title":"Respiratory disease","volume-title":"Handbook of Neonatal Intensive Care","author":"MI Hagedorn","year":"1998"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruggins NR. 1991. Pathophysiology of apnoea in preterm infants. Archives of Disease in Childhood<\/i> 66(1 spec. no.): 70\u201373.","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.66.1_Spec_No.70"},{"issue":"6","key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(05)80349-X","article-title":"Obstructive, mixed, and central apnea in the neonate: Physiologic correlates","volume":"121","author":"NN Finer","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/fn.71.1.F16","article-title":"Effect of nursing position on incidence, type, and duration of clinically significant apnoea in preterm infants","volume":"71","author":"LO Kurlak","year":"1994","journal-title":"Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition"},{"key":"25","unstructured":"Mathew OP, Thoppil CK, and Belan M. 1991. Motor activity and apnea in preterm infants. Is there a causal relationship? American Review of Respiratory Disease<\/i> 144(4): 842\u2013844."},{"key":"26","unstructured":"Blackburn ST, and Loper DL. 1992. Maternal, Fetal, and Neonatal Physiology: A Clinical Perspective.<\/i> Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 292\u2013297, 560\u2013565."},{"issue":"4","key":"27","first-page":"245","article-title":"Preterm infants' responses to taste\/smell and tactile stimulation during an apneic episode","volume":"8","author":"AP Garcia","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Nursing: Nursing Care of Children and Families"},{"key":"28","first-page":"116","article-title":"Physiologic monitoring","volume-title":"Handbook of Neonatal Intensive Care","author":"JR Pierce","year":"1998"},{"issue":"4","key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.100.4.622","article-title":"Effect of nursing in the head elevated tilt position (15 degrees) on the incidence of bradycardic and hypoxemic episodes in preterm infants","volume":"100","author":"OG Jenni","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"10","key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.1992.tb12092.x","article-title":"What does the preterm infant breathe for? Controversies on apnea of prematurity","volume":"81","author":"H. Lagercrantz","year":"1992","journal-title":"Acta Paediatrica"},{"issue":"8 supplement 3","key":"31","article-title":"Improved understanding of respiratory control: Implications for the treatment of apnoea","volume":"154","author":"H Lagercrantz","year":"1995","journal-title":"European Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"2","key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(79)80843-4","article-title":"Spontaneous neck flexion and airway obstruction during apneic spells in preterm infants","volume":"94","author":"BT Thach","year":"1979","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"8","key":"33","first-page":"35","article-title":"Effect of standard rest periods on apnea and weight gain in preterm infants","volume":"16","author":"C Torres","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neonatal Network"},{"key":"34","first-page":"193","article-title":"Drug treatment of neonatal apnea","volume-title":"In Pediatric Pharmacology: Therapeutic Principles Practice","author":"JV Aranda","year":"1992"},{"issue":"4","key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1097\/00005237-199603000-00007","article-title":"Pharmacologic management of apnea of prematurity","volume":"9","author":"LK. Calhoun","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing"},{"issue":"2","key":"36","first-page":"7","article-title":"Theophylline: A closer look","volume":"6","author":"M. Frank","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neonatal Network"},{"issue":"4","key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.1995.tb13649.x","article-title":"Aminophylline versus caffeine citrate for apnea and bradycardia prophylaxis in premature neonates","volume":"84","author":"PB Larsen","year":"1995","journal-title":"Acta Paediatrica"},{"issue":"4","key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(75)80158-2","article-title":"Apnea of prematurity: Comparative therapeutic effects of cutaneous stimulation and nasal continuous positive airway pressure","volume":"86","author":"J Kattwinkel","year":"1975","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"1","key":"39","first-page":"713","article-title":"Neonatal apnea: Diagnosis by nurse versus computer","volume":"82","author":"SC Muttitt","year":"1988","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"issue":"4","key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.1950140406","article-title":"Response to obstruction in preterm infants with apnea","volume":"14","author":"CJ Upton","year":"1992","journal-title":"Pediatric Pulmonology"},{"key":"41","volume-title":"Pediatric Dosage Handbook","author":"CK Taketomo","year":"1997"},{"key":"42","volume-title":"NeoFax","author":"TE Young","year":"1998"},{"issue":"6","key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/S0387-7604(97)00051-X","article-title":"Therapeutic doses of theophylline exerts proconvulsant effects","volume":"19","author":"H Yokoyama","year":"1997","journal-title":"Brain and Development"},{"issue":"3","key":"44","article-title":"Caffeine and cardiac arrhythmias","volume":"52","author":"A Mehta","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acta Cardiologica"},{"issue":"3","key":"45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1159\/000244234","article-title":"Methylxanthines increase renal calcium excretion in preterm infants","volume":"68","author":"V Zanardo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biology of the Neonate"},{"issue":"3","key":"46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-994116","article-title":"Theophylline concentration following equal doses of intravenous aminophylline and oral theophylline in preterm infants","volume":"14","author":"A al-Omran","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Journal of Perinatology"},{"key":"47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.67.4_Spec_No.425","article-title":"Caffeine or theophylline for neonatal apnoea?","volume":"67","author":"JE Scanlon","year":"1992","journal-title":"Archives of Disease in Childhood"},{"key":"48","unstructured":"Medscape. February 17, 2000. FDA approves new medication to treat respiratory disorder in infants. Medscape Wire<\/i> [online]: http:\/\/pediatrics.medscape.com\/medscapewire\/2000\/0200\/medwire.0217.FDA.html<\/a>"},{"key":"49","unstructured":"Sayles R, and McCarthy J, eds. 1995. ACH Neonatal Formulary.<\/i> (Available from the Department of Neonatology, Box 7565, All Children's Hospital, 801 Sixth Street, South, St. Petersburg, FL 33701.)"},{"issue":"2","key":"50","article-title":"The effects of theophylline and caffeine on the diaphragm","volume":"45","author":"A Gorgeli","year":"1995","journal-title":"Acta Physiologica"},{"issue":"4","key":"51","first-page":"359","article-title":"Low-dose doxapram for apnea unresponsive to aminophylline in VLBW infants","volume":"11","author":"LP Brion","year":"1991","journal-title":"Journal of Perinatology"},{"issue":"4","key":"52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(05)81620-8","article-title":"A blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial to compare theophylline and doxapram for the treatment of apnea of prematurity","volume":"116","author":"A Peliowski","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"1","key":"53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1997.83.1.52","article-title":"Almitrine and doxapram decrease fatigue and increase subsequent recovery in isolated rate diaphragm","volume":"83","author":"M McGuire","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Physiology"},{"issue":"4","key":"54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1159\/000243744","article-title":"Doxapram for the initial treatment of idiopathic apnea of prematurity","volume":"61","author":"A Bairam","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biology of the Neonate"},{"issue":"2","key":"55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-999357","article-title":"Gastrointestinal absorption of doxapram in neonates","volume":"8","author":"A Bairam","year":"1991","journal-title":"American Journal of Perinatology"},{"issue":"1","key":"56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(98)70197-0","article-title":"Second-degree atrioventricular heart block after doxapram administration","volume":"133","author":"GS De Villiers","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"3","key":"57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.1950130305","article-title":"Prolonged apnea and oxyhemoglobin desaturation in asymptomatic premature infants","volume":"13","author":"ML Spear","year":"1992","journal-title":"Pediatric Pulmonology"},{"issue":"1","key":"58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(98)70481-0","article-title":"A possible role for the Hering-Breuer deflation reflex in apnea of prematurity","volume":"132","author":"S Hannam","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"6","key":"59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(85)80475-3","article-title":"Continuous positive airway pressure selectively reduces obstructive apnea in preterm infants","volume":"106","author":"MJ Miller","year":"1985","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatrics"},{"issue":"3","key":"60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.100.3.354","article-title":"Apnea frequently persists beyond term gestation in infants delivered at 24 to 28 weeks","volume":"100","author":"EC Eichenwald","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Academy of Pediatrics. 1998. Hospital discharge of the high-risk neonate\u2014Proposed guidelines. Pediatrics<\/i> 102(2): 411\u2013417.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.102.2.411"},{"issue":"4","key":"62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1016\/S0095-5108(18)30428-7","article-title":"Maturation of breathing","volume":"19","author":"H. Rigatto","year":"1992","journal-title":"Clinics in Perinatology"},{"issue":"3","key":"63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1097\/00008480-199606000-00003","article-title":"Evaluation and management of gastroesophageal reflux and pulmonary disease","volume":"8","author":"JF del Rosario","year":"1996","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Pediatrics"},{"issue":"2","key":"64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0095-5108(18)30244-6","article-title":"Gastroesophageal reflux in the preterm infant","volume":"23","author":"DA. Novak","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clinics in Perinatology"},{"key":"65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9343(97)00336-7","article-title":"Reflux associated apnea in infants: Evidence for a laryngeal chemoreflex","volume":"103","author":"BT. Thach","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Journal of Medicine"}],"container-title":["Neonatal Network"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1891\/0730-0832.19.6.17","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,15]],"date-time":"2022-01-15T04:03:52Z","timestamp":1642219432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/connect.springerpub.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.1891\/0730-0832.19.6.17"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2000,9]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2000,9,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1891\/0730-0832.19.6.17"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1891\/0730-0832.19.6.17","relation":{},"ISSN":["0730-0832","1539-2880"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0730-0832","type":"print"},{"value":"1539-2880","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2000,9]]}}}