{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T09:24:33Z","timestamp":1768555473997,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Publishing Company","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Violence Vict"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and stay-at-home (SAH) orders on gun violence in New York City (NYC), with a focus on variations across neighborhood demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Using a 4-year longitudinal and geospatial analysis, we investigate the relationship between socioeconomic factors (e.g., poverty, unemployment, and minority presence) and shooting incidents, as well as how SAH orders shaped these trends. A detailed heatmap visualizes the distribution of shooting incidents, revealing concentrations in the Upper Bronx and Central Brooklyn. Hypothesis testing was conducted with a negative binomial regression model using interrupted time series analysis. We found neighborhoods with higher proportions of Black, Hispanic, unemployed, and low-income residents experienced more shootings. Shooting incidents were unusually low at the beginning of the SAH order but increased steadily over time, peaking dramatically after the order was lifted. Unemployment drove a sharp rise in shooting incidents during the SAH period, while poverty contributed to a more sustained impact on violence in the post-SAH period. The findings highlight the disproportionate burden of COVID-19 pandemic on vulnerable groups and the evolving influence of SAH orders on gun violence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1891\/vv-2024-0058","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,2]],"date-time":"2025-01-02T15:55:14Z","timestamp":1735833314000},"page":"331-350","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Impact Assessment Through Interrupted Time Series: Divergent Influences of Stay-at-Home Order on Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Areas in NYC Shooting Incidents"],"prefix":"10.1891","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Yuxin","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhuo","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James E.","family":"Hawdon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"793","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.1","article-title":"COVID and crime: An early empirical look","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.2","first-page":"107020","article-title":"The changing epidemiology of interpersonal firearm violence during the COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia, PA","year":"2022","journal-title":"Preventive Medicine"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sf\/64.1.151"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.5","unstructured":"Agnew, R . (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory . Roxbury."},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01113.x"},{"issue":"11","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.7","first-page":"1598","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in pandemic-era unemployment insurance access: Implications for health and well-being: Study examines racial and ethnic disparities in access to unemployment insurance during COVID-19 and implications for health and wellbeing","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Affairs"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.8","first-page":"168","article-title":"Who are the essential and frontline workers?","year":"2021","journal-title":"Business Economics"},{"issue":"5","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.9","first-page":"704","article-title":"Exploring the immediate effects of COVID-19 containment policies on crime: An empirical analysis of the short-term aftermath in Los Angeles","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, L. E. , & Felson, M . (2010). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach (1979). In Classics in environmental criminology (pp. 203\u2013232). Routledge. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781439817803-12","DOI":"10.4324\/9781439817803-12"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/qjmed\/hcaa110"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.12","unstructured":"Davies, G. , Guenfoud, I. , & Jovanovic, D . (2021). \"Shadow pandemic\": Domestic abuse reports soar during Europe\u2019s coronavirus crisis . ABC News."},{"issue":"3","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.13","first-page":"412","article-title":"An investigation of the impact of the pandemic era on shooting victimizations in Detroit, Michigan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Crime and Justice"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.14","article-title":"The racial gap in employment and layoffs during COVID-19 in the United States: A visualization","year":"2021","journal-title":"Socius"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.15","unstructured":"Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2023). NICS firearm checks: Month\/year . http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080207010024\/"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flum, H . (2015). Relationships and career development: An integrative approach. In P. J. Hartung , M. L. Savickas , & B. W. Walsh (Eds.), APA handbook of career intervention, volume 1: foundations . American Psychological Association. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/14438-009","DOI":"10.1037\/14438-009"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.118.3.392"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.18","first-page":"61","article-title":"Effects of economic uncertainty on mental health in the COVID-19 pandemic context: Social identity disturbance, job uncertainty and psychological well-being model","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Innovation and Economic Development"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2007.09.002"},{"issue":"69","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.20","article-title":"Show me a man or a woman alone and I\u2019ll show you a saint: Changes in the frequency of criminal incidents during the COVID-19 pandemic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.21","unstructured":"Homeland Security Digital Library. (2022). Raising awareness of hate crimes and hate incidents during the COVID-19 pandemic . https:\/\/www.hsdl.org\/c\/abstract\/?docid=871362"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.22","unstructured":"Horse, A. J. Y. , Jeung, R. , Lim, R. , Tang, B. , Im, M. , Higashiyama, L. , & Chen, M . (2021). Stop AAPI hate national report . Stop AAPI Hate."},{"issue":"3","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.23","article-title":"Analyzing child firearm assault injuries by race and ethnicity during the COVID-19 pandemic in 4 major US cities","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.24","first-page":"423","article-title":"Gang-related crime in Los Angeles remained stable following COVID\u201019 social distancing orders","year":"2021","journal-title":"Criminology & Public Policy"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.25","article-title":"Domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic - Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.26","article-title":"When COVID-19 and guns meet: A rise in shootings","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.27","first-page":"401","article-title":"Crime, quarantine, and the U.S. Coronavirus pandemic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Criminology & Public Policy"},{"issue":"Pt A","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.28","first-page":"107241","article-title":"Association between race, shooting hot spots, and the surge in gun violence during the COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia, New York and Los Angeles","year":"2022","journal-title":"Preventive Medicine"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.29","unstructured":"McLean, B. , & Nocera, J . (2023). The big fail: What the pandemic revealed about who America protects and who it leaves behind . Penguin."},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mir\u00f3, F . (2014). Routine activity theory. In The encyclopedia of theoretical criminology (pp. 1\u20137). John Wiley & Sons. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9781118517390","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118517390.wbetc198"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.31","article-title":"Impact of social distancing during COVID-19 pandemic on crime in Los Angeles and Indianapolis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Criminal Justice"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022427808330873"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.33","article-title":"Racial disparities in COVID-19 pandemic cases, hospitalisations, and deaths: A systematic review and meta-analysis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Global Health"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.34","unstructured":"NYU Furman Center. (2021). Bronx neighborhood profile . https:\/\/furmancenter.org\/neighborhoods\/view\/the-bronx"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osgood, D. W . (2017). Poisson-based regression analysis of aggregate crime rates. In Quantitative methods in criminology (pp. 577\u2013599). Routledge. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781315089256-23","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315089256-23"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0044118X10366951"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.37","unstructured":"Pragholapati, A . (2020). Mental health in pandemic covid-19 . SSRN 3596311."},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.38","first-page":"100218","article-title":"The COVID-19, racism, and violence syndemic: Evidence from a qualitative study with Black residents of Chicago","year":"2023","journal-title":"SSM. Qualitative Research in Health"},{"issue":"2","key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.39","first-page":"73","article-title":"Migrant workers, essential work, and COVID-19","year":"2021","journal-title":"American Journal of Industrial Medicine"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2021.306540"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/S40621-021-00339-5\/TABLES\/2"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12103-020-09546-0"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.43","unstructured":"Stringer, S. M . (2020). New York City\u2019s frontline workers . https:\/\/comptroller.nyc.gov\/reports\/new-york-citys-frontline-workers\/"},{"key":"2025051311501541000_40.2.331.44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1708\/3382.33569"}],"container-title":["Violence and Victims"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1891\/VV-2024-0058","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,13]],"date-time":"2025-05-13T18:51:20Z","timestamp":1747162280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/connect.springerpub.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.1891\/VV-2024-0058"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,2]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,13]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1891\/VV-2024-0058"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1891\/vv-2024-0058","relation":{},"ISSN":["0886-6708","1945-7073"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0886-6708","type":"print"},{"value":"1945-7073","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,2]]}}}