{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T05:55:45Z","timestamp":1791179745835,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"American Public Health Association","issue":"8","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Am J Public Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Objectives. We used cluster analysis to subdivide a population of injection drug users and identify previously unknown behavioral heterogeneity within that population. <\/jats:p><jats:p> Methods. We applied cluster analysis techniques to data collected in a cross-sectional survey of injection drug users in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The clustering variables we used were based on receptive syringe sharing, ethnicity, and types of drugs injected. <\/jats:p><jats:p> Results. Seven clusters were identified for both male and female injection drug users. Some relationships previously revealed in our study setting, such as the known relationship between Talwin (pentazocine) and Ritalin (methylphenidate) use, injection in hotels, and hepatitis C virus prevalence, were confirmed through our cluster analysis approach. Also, relationships between drug use and infection risk not previously observed in our study setting were identified, an example being a cluster of female crystal methamphetamine users who exhibited high-risk behaviors but an absence or low prevalence of blood-borne pathogens. <\/jats:p><jats:p> Conclusions. Cluster analysis was useful in both confirming relationships previously identified and identifying new ones relevant to public health research and interventions. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2007.120741","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,6,13]],"date-time":"2008-06-13T02:29:10Z","timestamp":1213324150000},"page":"1430-1437","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Identifying Heterogeneity Among Injection Drug Users: A Cluster Analysis Approach"],"prefix":"10.2105","volume":"98","author":[{"given":"Souradet Y.","family":"Shaw","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"At the time of this study, Souradet Y. Shaw and Lena Shah were with the Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. Ann M. Jolly is with the Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Population and Public Health Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and the Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa. John L. Wylie is with the Departments of Medical Microbiology and Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg..."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"At the time of this study, Souradet Y. Shaw and Lena Shah were with the Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. Ann M. Jolly is with the Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Population and Public Health Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and the Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa. John L. Wylie is with the Departments of Medical Microbiology and Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg..."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ann M.","family":"Jolly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"At the time of this study, Souradet Y. Shaw and Lena Shah were with the Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. Ann M. Jolly is with the Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Population and Public Health Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and the Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa. John L. Wylie is with the Departments of Medical Microbiology and Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg..."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John L.","family":"Wylie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"At the time of this study, Souradet Y. Shaw and Lena Shah were with the Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. Ann M. Jolly is with the Centre for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Population and Public Health Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and the Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa. John L. Wylie is with the Departments of Medical Microbiology and Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg..."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"844","reference":[{"key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-200406010-00012"},{"key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2893.2002.00319.x"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/jtg033"},{"key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000120802.43677.ea"},{"key":"R6","unstructured":"Vlahov D, Junge B. The role of needle exchange programs in HIV prevention. Public Health Rep. 1998; 113:75\u201380."},{"key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02094.x"},{"key":"R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qai.0000219788.73539.47"},{"key":"R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1521\/aeap.17.3.170.62900"},{"key":"R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200003310-00015"},{"key":"R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200204120-00021"},{"key":"R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2001.9657177.x"},{"key":"R13","unstructured":"Wood E, Tyndall M, Spittal PM, et al. Unsafe injection practices in a cohort of injection drug users in Vancouver: could safer injecting rooms help? Can Med Assoc J. 2001;165:405\u2013410."},{"key":"R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02852.x"},{"key":"R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2006.12.021"},{"key":"R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2005.11.011"},{"key":"R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2004.00694.x"},{"key":"R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199708000-00001"},{"key":"R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2001.9645978.x"},{"key":"R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.91.3.406"},{"key":"R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2003.10400004"},{"key":"R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09540120050123909"},{"key":"R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(01)00204-0"},{"key":"R25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2005.01271.x"},{"key":"R26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2007.01940.x"},{"key":"R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.84.6.920"},{"key":"R28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199802010-00010"},{"key":"R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(94)90301-8"},{"key":"R31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10826089809059332"},{"key":"R32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(95)00193-X"},{"key":"R33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-199801000-00008"},{"key":"R34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxh005"},{"key":"R35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10464-005-3397-z"},{"key":"R36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/sti.2004.010728"},{"key":"R37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsj067"},{"key":"R38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1020257103376"},{"key":"R39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1081\/JA-100108439"},{"key":"R40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.87.8.1289"},{"key":"R41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-005-9058-2"},{"key":"R42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09540120500121185"},{"key":"R43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.1999.9456755.x"},{"key":"R44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2006.02.030"},{"key":"R47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2006.01596.x"},{"key":"R48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1081\/ADA-100104510"},{"key":"R49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpain.2005.01.015"},{"key":"R50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291799002615"},{"key":"R51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2006.09.002"},{"key":"R52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-6-229"},{"key":"R54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1963.10500845"},{"key":"R55","unstructured":"Sokal MM, Michener CD. A statistical method for evaluating systematic relationships. Univ Kans Sci Bull. 1958;38:1409\u20131438."},{"key":"R56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0055441"},{"key":"R58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.83.3.377"},{"key":"R59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Overall JE, Gibson JM, Novy DM. Population recovery capabilities of 35 cluster analysis methods. J Clin Recovery. 1993;49:459\u2013470.","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-4679(199307)49:4<459::AID-JCLP2270490402>3.0.CO;2-P"},{"key":"R60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2529565"},{"key":"R61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327906mbr2202_6"},{"key":"R62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finch H. Comparison of distance measures in cluster analysis with dichotomous data. J Data Sci. 2005;3:85\u2013100.","DOI":"10.6339\/JDS.2005.03(1).192"},{"key":"R63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1932409"},{"key":"R64","unstructured":"Jaccard P. Nouvelles researches sur la distribution florale. Bull Soc Vaud Sci Nat. 1908;44:223\u2013270."},{"key":"R65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-17-1-184"},{"key":"R67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03610928308827180"},{"key":"R69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/jhep.2001.25759"},{"key":"R70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De P, Jolly AM, Cox J, Boivin JF. Characterizing the drug-injecting networks of cocaine and heroin injectors in Montreal. Can J Public Health. 2006;97: 207\u2013209.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03405586"},{"key":"R71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200304110-00014"},{"key":"R72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaufman CE, Shelby L, Mosure DJ, et al. Within the hidden epidemic: sexually transmitted diseases and HIV\/AIDS among American Indians and Alaska Natives. Sex Transm Dis. 2007;34:767\u2013777.","DOI":"10.1097\/01.olq.0000260915.64098.cb"},{"key":"R73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199708000-00001"},{"key":"R74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jurban\/78.3.433"},{"key":"R75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-200101000-00005"},{"key":"R76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2190\/LKDF-UJQ5-W1KU-GLR1"},{"key":"R77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2005.075747"},{"key":"R78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-199905000-00003"},{"key":"R79","unstructured":"Spittal P, Craib KJP, Wood E, et al. Risk factors for elevated HIV incidence rates among female injection drug users in Vancouver. Can Med Assoc J. 2002; 166:894\u2013899."},{"key":"R80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2004.12.024"},{"key":"R81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199904160-00002"},{"key":"R82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2005.09.002"},{"key":"R84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(06)80012-8"},{"key":"R85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-005-1679-y"},{"key":"R86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2006.10.019"},{"key":"R87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007435-200007000-00005"},{"key":"R88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/174.Supplement_2.S201"},{"key":"R89","unstructured":"Brunham RC. Core group theory: a central concept in STD epidemiology. Venereology. 1997;10: 34\u201339."},{"key":"R90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.89.6.825"},{"key":"R91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199609000-00013"},{"key":"R92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1258\/0956462971920497"},{"key":"R94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.94.1.22"},{"key":"R95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(96)00304-8"},{"key":"R96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.58.4.635"},{"key":"R97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/annhyg\/43.1.43"},{"key":"R98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0895-4356(01)00398-5"},{"key":"R99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01324300"},{"key":"R100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0028467"},{"key":"R101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15288\/jsa.1981.42.925"},{"key":"R102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1992.01820080007002"},{"key":"R103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1981.01780330019001"},{"key":"R104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2006.01596.x"},{"key":"R105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1300\/J069v11n02_03"},{"key":"R106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.52.11.1616"},{"key":"R107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-007-9272-7"},{"key":"R108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.55.1.29"},{"key":"R109","unstructured":"Howell SC, Eslick GD, Talley NJ. Cluster\u2019s last stand. Gut. 2004;53:773\u2013774."},{"key":"R110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/345554"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/ajph.aphapublications.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.2105\/AJPH.2007.120741","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,9]],"date-time":"2022-05-09T22:41:08Z","timestamp":1652136068000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ajph.aphapublications.org\/doi\/full\/10.2105\/AJPH.2007.120741"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.2105\/AJPH.2007.120741"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2007.120741","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-0036","1541-0048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-0036","type":"print"},{"value":"1541-0048","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]}}}