{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T12:09:07Z","timestamp":1783166947065,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"American Public Health Association","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Am J Public Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> In the era of synthetic biology, vaccine skeptics have made claims that vaccines are \u201cunnatural,\u201d that the technology used to develop them is risky and untested, and that \u201cnaturally acquired\u201d immunity is superior to vaccination. Public health practitioners and physicians alike have attempted to respond to these concerns by reminding patients and the public that vaccines generate a \u201cnatural\u201d immune response. These negotiations over the language to describe vaccines are nothing new. <\/jats:p><jats:p> This article puts the relationship between vaccines and concepts like \u201cnature\u201d and \u201cnatural\u201d in historical perspective. In the mid- to late 19th century, the smallpox vaccine, then the only vaccine available, was propagated on farms. Vaccine farmers\u2014usually enterprising physicians\u2014kept herds of cattle infected with cowpox, cultivating the virus \u201cstock\u201d from which the vaccine was derived. <\/jats:p><jats:p> By exploring how vaccine farmers established and maintained public confidence in their products, we can see that debates over vaccine safety have always involved concerted efforts to persuade the public to place their trust in technologies that might at first seem novel, strange, or even dangerous. More broadly, this article encourages readers to think about the shifting valences of the category \u201cnatural,\u201d particularly in a public health context. ( Am J Public Health. 2024;114(2):193\u2013201. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2023.307508 ) <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2023.307508","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T21:00:36Z","timestamp":1704402036000},"page":"193-201","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["From Farms to Pharma: A \u201cNatural\u201d History of Vaccine Production and Vaccine Skepticism"],"prefix":"10.2105","volume":"114","author":[{"given":"Tess","family":"Lanzarotta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tess Lanzarotta is with the Department of History at Denison University, Granville, OH."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"844","reference":[{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.21625"},{"key":"bib3","volume-title":"Calling the Shots: Why Parents Reject Vaccines","author":"See","year":"2018"},{"key":"bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822386506"},{"key":"bib5","first-page":"1006","volume":"3","author":"Watson Sir Thomas","year":"1878","journal-title":"The Nineteenth Century: A Monthly Review"},{"key":"bib7","unstructured":"George Pearson, An Inquiry Concerning the History of the Cowpox, Principally With a View to Supersede and Extinguish the Smallpox (London, England: J. Johnson, 1798), 67."},{"issue":"1","key":"bib8","first-page":"7222","author":"Rusnock Andrea","year":"2009","journal-title":"See, for instance: Jos\u00e9 Esparza et\u00a0al., \u201cEquination (Inoculation of Horsepox): An Early Alternative to Vaccination (Inoculation of Cowpox) and the Potential Role of Horsepox Virus in the Origin of the Smallpox Vaccine,\u201d Vaccine 35 (2017)"},{"key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2018.304348"},{"key":"bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/shm\/13.1.45"},{"key":"bib12","unstructured":"MargaretHumphreys , Marrow of Tragedy: The Health Crisis of the American Civil War (Baltimore, MD:  The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 282\u2012283."},{"issue":"12","key":"bib14","first-page":"337","volume":"15","author":"For instance, see: \u201cCommunications. Vaccination, Its Dangers and Their Prevention,\u201d","year":"1876","journal-title":"Journal of Materia Medica"},{"key":"bib16","unstructured":"Henry A. Martin, On Animal Vaccination (Boston:  The Author, 1877), 15."},{"key":"bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2020.05.037"},{"key":"bib22","first-page":"375","volume":"134","author":"Martin Henry A.","year":"1882","journal-title":"North American Review"},{"key":"bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM189405031301802"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib24","first-page":"355","volume":"37","year":"1876","journal-title":"Southern Planter and Farmer"},{"key":"bib26","unstructured":"John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana, IL:  University of Illinois Press, 1992), 119\u2012132."},{"key":"bib27","volume-title":"New York Review of Books","author":"Sontag Susan","year":"1978"},{"key":"bib28","unstructured":"Quoted in Sheila Rothman, Living in the Shadow of Death: Tuberculosis and the Social Experience of Illness in American History (New York, NY:  BasicBooks, 1994), 47."},{"key":"bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520939998"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib30","first-page":"37","volume-title":"The American Journal of Pharmacy","volume":"76","author":"G.M.B","year":"1904"},{"issue":"7","key":"bib31","first-page":"239","volume":"70","author":"Alexander H.M.","year":"1894","journal-title":"Medical and Surgical Reporter"},{"key":"bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.323.7327.1469"},{"key":"bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manly Miles, Stock-Breeding: A Practical Treatise on the Applications of the Laws of Development and Heredity to the Improvement and Breeding of Domestic Animals (New York, NY:  D. Appleton and Co, 1878), 337\u2012339.","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.20424"},{"key":"bib34","unstructured":"Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, MA:  Harvard University Press, 1987), 60\u201261."},{"issue":"12","key":"bib35","first-page":"27","volume":"15","year":"1879","journal-title":"Medical Record"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib36","first-page":"13","volume":"19","year":"1881","journal-title":"Medical Record"},{"issue":"17","key":"bib37","first-page":"463","volume":"40","year":"1882","journal-title":"Medical News"},{"issue":"15","key":"bib38","first-page":"411","volume":"40","year":"1882","journal-title":"Medical News"},{"issue":"19","key":"bib39","first-page":"521","volume":"40","year":"1882","journal-title":"Medical News"},{"issue":"21","key":"bib40","first-page":"579","volume":"40","year":"1882","journal-title":"Medical News"},{"issue":"12","key":"bib44","first-page":"318","volume":"24","year":"1883","journal-title":"Medical Record"},{"issue":"24","key":"bib45","first-page":"655","volume":"23","year":"1883","journal-title":"Medical Record"},{"key":"bib46","volume-title":"The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life","author":"See:","year":"1998"},{"issue":"13","key":"bib47","first-page":"363","volume":"27","author":"McCaskey G.W.","year":"1885","journal-title":"Medical Record"},{"issue":"2505","key":"bib48","first-page":"10","volume":"48","year":"1896","journal-title":"The Independent"},{"key":"bib49","unstructured":"Michael Willrich, Pox: An American History (New York, NY:  The Penguin Press, 2011), 185."},{"issue":"7","key":"bib51","first-page":"239","volume":"70","author":"Alexander H.M.","year":"1894","journal-title":"Medical and Surgical Reporter"},{"issue":"226","key":"bib52","first-page":"3","volume":"38","author":"Lee Benjamin","year":"1897","journal-title":"The Sanitarian"},{"key":"bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781782046851"},{"key":"bib57","unstructured":"W.M. Hume-Rothery, Vaccination and the Vaccination Laws: A Physical Curse, and a Class-Tyranny (Manchester, England:  W. Tolley, 1872), 1."},{"key":"bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400860326"},{"key":"bib62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-08739-6"},{"key":"bib63","volume-title":"Vaccine Nation: America\u2019s Changing Relationship With Immunization","author":"See","year":"2015"},{"key":"bib64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226440637.001.0001"},{"key":"bib66","author":"Begley Sharon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scientific American"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/ajph.aphapublications.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.2105\/AJPH.2023.307508","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T21:01:48Z","timestamp":1707512508000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ajph.aphapublications.org\/doi\/full\/10.2105\/AJPH.2023.307508"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.2105\/AJPH.2023.307508"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2023.307508","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-0036","1541-0048"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-0036","type":"print"},{"value":"1541-0048","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}}}