{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T16:35:20Z","timestamp":1778690120753,"version":"3.51.4"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"group-title":"SSRN","reference-count":61,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examines the feasibility and environmental performance of extrusion-based 3D-printed biobased composite wall elements, which combine a structural outer shell with a hempcrete insulation core. Three printable bio-based mixtures were developed using alternative binders \u2013 magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC), calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA) and a gypsum-based binder (BG) \u2013 and evaluated in terms of fresh properties, mechanical performance and life-cycle impacts. Green strength, density, compressive and flexural strength were measured on both printed and moulded specimens, while a cradle-to-gate carbon footprint assessment was carried out at material, printing-process and wall-assembly levels, including strength-normalised indicators and comparison with conventional insulated wall systems. CSA delivered the highest compressive strength of the printed composites (&gt;5 MPa), followed by MOC and BG, with printed specimens showing slightly lower strength and density than their moulded counterparts. At the material level, BG exhibited the lowest global warming impact (GW) per cubic metre due to the intrinsically low impact of gypsum, whereas CSA and MOC were penalised by their calcined components. When normalised by compressive strength, CSA emerged as the most environmentally efficient binder, while MOC showed the highest GW per MPa. At wall level, all three 3D-printed outer layers combined with a low-density hempcrete core achieved net-negative GW, storing approximately 123\u2013171 kg CO\u2082-eq per square metre of wall at U = 0.105 W\/(m\u00b2\u00b7K), and clearly outperforming mineral wool and EPS-insulated reference walls. The results demonstrate that 3D-printed bio-based envelopes with hempcrete infill can provide mechanically robust, thermally efficient and carbon-negative alternatives to conventional building envelope solutions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.6478099","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T10:49:57Z","timestamp":1774608597000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["3D printing of bio-based building materials - mix design, properties and carbon footprint assessment"],"prefix":"10.2139","author":[{"given":"Liga","family":"Puzule","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ella","family":"Spurina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9434-5786","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Girts","family":"Frolovs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9480-783X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Davis","family":"Dragons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8881-3564","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ana","family":"Dias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2332-1347","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maris","family":"Sinka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"issue":"14","key":"ref1","article-title":"Energy and Climate Framework for 2030","volume":"169","author":"Eu","year":"2014","journal-title":"EUCO"},{"key":"ref2","volume":"80","author":"European Commission","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proposal for a Regulation establishing the framework for achieving climate neutrality"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.2478\/rtuect-2020-0026","article-title":"GHG Performance Evaluation in Green Deal Context","volume":"24","author":"B Zlaugotne","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environmental and Climate Technologies"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.2478\/rtuect-2021-0004","article-title":"Industrial Energy Efficiency Towards Green Deal Transition. Case of Latvia","volume":"25","author":"K Locmelis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environmental and Climate Technologies"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2017.12.006","article-title":"Fast-growing bio-based materials as an opportunity for storing carbon in exterior walls","volume":"129","author":"F Pittau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Build Environ"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.2478\/rtuect-2021-0005","article-title":"Life Cycle Assessment of Reprocessed Cross Laminated Timber in Latvia","volume":"25","author":"I Vamza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environmental and Climate Technologies"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.30574\/wjaets.2025.14.2.0075","article-title":"Industrial Cannabis sativa (Fiber or Hemp): 3D printing-hempcrete-a sustainable building material","volume":"14","author":"B Ravindra","year":"2025","journal-title":"World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3390\/biomass4010004","article-title":"State of the Art Review of Attributes and Mechanical Properties of Hempcrete","volume":"4","author":"N Asghari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomass"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2023.132603","article-title":"A review of experimental studies on Cob, Hempcrete, and bamboo components and the call for transition towards sustainable home building with 3D printing","volume":"399","author":"E Binega Yemesegen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr Build Mater"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s41062-025-01906-1","article-title":"A comprehensive review of hempcrete as a sustainable building material","volume":"10","author":"K Steyn","year":"2025","journal-title":"Innovative Infrastructure Solutions"},{"issue":"21","key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/su12218838","article-title":"Fast Setting Binders for Application in 3D Printing of Bio-Based Building Materials","volume":"12","author":"M Sinka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.2478\/rtuect-2022-0057","article-title":"Hempcrete -CO 2 Neutral Wall Solutions for 3D Printing","volume":"26","author":"M Sinka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environmental and Climate Technologies"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref13","article-title":"Development of a field experimental test house to study heat transfer in bio-based materials with microencapsulated PCM","volume":"2911","author":"? Cie?likiewicz","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Phys Conf Ser"},{"key":"ref14","article-title":"Design and validation of a selective binding 3D printer for bio-based construction materials","volume":"20","author":"V Danch\ufffd","year":"2024","journal-title":"Developments in the Built Environment"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dibe.2024.100572","article-title":"Examining the global warming potential of hempcrete in the United States: A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment","volume":"20","author":"S S Shanbhag","year":"2024","journal-title":"Developments in the Built Environment"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.02.161","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of natural building materials: the role of carbonation, mixture components and transport in the environmental impacts of hempcrete blocks","volume":"149","author":"A Arrigoni","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2018.02.024","article-title":"Comparative life cycle assessment of magnesium binders as an alternative for hemp concrete","volume":"133","author":"M Sinka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Resour Conserv Recycl"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cscm.2025.e04693","article-title":"Optimization of clay-based ceramic mixtures with sugarcane bagasse fiber for 3D printing","volume":"22","author":"G Pante Leme De Campos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Case Studies in Construction Materials"},{"key":"ref19","volume":"60","author":"S Amziane","journal-title":"Bio-Based Building Materials -Proceedings of ICBBM 2025"},{"key":"ref20","journal-title":"Australian company Mirreco to 3D print homes from hemp"},{"key":"ref21","author":"Black Buffalo","journal-title":"Collaboration to 3D Print Plant-Based Affordable Housing"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2022.106807","article-title":"Environmental impact of extrusion-based additive manufacturing: generic model, power measurements and influence of printing resolution","volume":"157","author":"K Kuzmenko","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cem Concr Res"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2022.104456","article-title":"Life cycle assessment (LCA) and environmental sustainability of cementitious materials for 3D concrete printing: A systematic literature review","volume":"52","author":"M P Tinoco","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Building Engineering"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.122463","article-title":"Environmental assessment of large-scale 3D printing in construction: A comparative study between cob and concrete","volume":"270","author":"H Alhumayani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"key":"ref25","article-title":"A comparative study on environmental performance of 3D printing and conventional casting of concrete products with industrial wastes","volume":"298","author":"S Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref26","article-title":"Environmental profile of 3D concrete printing technology in desert areas via life cycle assessment","volume":"396","author":"R.-C Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cesys.2022.100078","article-title":"Comparative life cycle assessment of large-scale 3D printing utilizing kaolinite-based calcium sulfoaluminate cement concrete and conventional construction","volume":"5","author":"L Abu-Ennab","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cleaner Environmental Systems"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jobe.2023.105863","article-title":"A review of '3D concrete printing': Materials and process characterization, economic considerations and environmental sustainability","volume":"66","author":"G H Ahmed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Building Engineering"},{"key":"ref29","article-title":"Life cycle assessment for masonry exterior wall assemblies made of traditional building materials","author":"Z Zimele","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/15440478.2025.2495927","article-title":"Selected Properties of Sustainable Hemp Shives Based Magnesium Composite Compacted in Two Directions and Its Life Cycle Assessment","volume":"22","author":"P Brzyski","journal-title":"Journal of Natural Fibers"},{"key":"ref31","article-title":"Impact of external loading on the time-dependent evolution of 3D printed concrete with recycled sand in the green state","volume":"160","author":"C Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cem Concr Compos"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2024.138756","article-title":"Early age time-dependent mechanical properties of 3D-printed concrete with coarse aggregates","volume":"451","author":"Y Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Constr Build Mater"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127496","article-title":"Study on the mechanical properties of 3D printing concrete layers and the mechanism of influence of printing parameters","volume":"335","author":"X Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr Build Mater"},{"key":"ref34","article-title":"State-of-the-art of mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete","volume":"21","author":"J Cai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Studies in Construction Materials"},{"key":"ref35","article-title":"State-of-the-art of mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete","volume":"21","author":"J Cai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Case Studies in Construction Materials"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-025-02688-9","article-title":"Mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete: a RILEM 304-ADC interlaboratory study -compressive strength and modulus of elasticity","volume":"58","author":"V Mechtcherine","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater Struct"},{"issue":"16","key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6373","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c04927","article-title":"Is Additive Manufacturing an Environmentally and Economically Preferred Alternative for Mass Production?","volume":"57","author":"S Jung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Sci Technol"},{"key":"ref38","volume":"9","author":"G Bumanis","journal-title":"Environmental Benefit of Alternative Binders in Construction Industry: Life Cycle Assessment"},{"key":"ref39","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of natural and recycled gypsum production in the Spanish context","volume":"253","author":"M A Pedre\ufffdo-Rojas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/jcs8060212","article-title":"Gypsum-Cement-Pozzolan Composites for 3D Printing: Properties and Life Cycle Assessment","volume":"8","author":"G Sahmenko","journal-title":"Journal of Composites Science"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-025-02688-9","article-title":"Mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete: a RILEM 304-ADC interlaboratory study -compressive strength and modulus of elasticity","volume":"58","author":"V Mechtcherine","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater Struct"},{"key":"ref42","article-title":"State-of-the-art of mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete","volume":"21","author":"J Cai","journal-title":"Case Studies in Construction Materials"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1080\/15440478.2025.2495927","article-title":"Selected Properties of Sustainable Hemp Shives Based Magnesium Composite Compacted in Two Directions and Its Life Cycle Assessment","volume":"22","author":"P Brzyski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Natural Fibers"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.127496","article-title":"Study on the mechanical properties of 3D printing concrete layers and the mechanism of influence of printing parameters","volume":"335","author":"X Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Constr Build Mater"},{"key":"ref45","first-page":"169","article-title":"Understanding Carbon-Negative Potential of Hempcrete Using a Life Cycle Assessment Approach","volume":"237","author":"S S Shanbhag","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref46","article-title":"Climate mitigation potential of biobased insulation materials: A comprehensive review and categorization","volume":"470","author":"Z Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-024-02425-4","article-title":"Evaluating environmental impacts of bio-based insulation materials through scenario-based and dynamic life cycle assessment","volume":"30","author":"V Cascione","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int J Life Cycle Assess"},{"issue":"22","key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ma16227208","article-title":"Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of a Novel Hemp-Based Building Material","volume":"16","author":"D Rivas-Aybar","journal-title":"Materials"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2025.145509","article-title":"Environmental life cycle assessment of hemp-based thermal insulation: From agricultural growth to manufacturing in the United States","volume":"506","author":"F Nazari","year":"2025","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2013.11.010","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of a hemp concrete wall : Impact of thickness and coating","volume":"72","author":"S Pretot","year":"2014","journal-title":"Build Environ"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2017.09.097","article-title":"A life-cycle energy and carbon analysis of hemp-lime bio-composite building materials","volume":"156","author":"Y Florentin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Build"},{"key":"ref52","article-title":"Hempcrete -CO 2 Neutral Wall Solutions for 3D Printing","author":"M Sinka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environmental and Climate Technologies"},{"key":"ref53","first-page":"1215","volume":"25","author":"S E Di Capua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Evaluation of the Environmental Sustainability of Hemp as a Building Material, through Life Cycle Assessment,\" Environmental and Climate Technologies"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eiar.2023.107085","article-title":"Environmental benefits of using hempcrete walls in residential construction: An LCA-based comparative case study in Morocco","volume":"100","author":"L Essaghouri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ Impact Assess Rev"},{"key":"ref55","article-title":"How has LCA been applied to 3D printing? A systematic literature review and recommendations for future studies","volume":"244","author":"M R M Saade","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Clean Prod"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/su13020461","article-title":"Life Cycle Assessment Framework for Embodied Environmental Impacts of Building Construction Systems","volume":"13","author":"M Abouhamad","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"issue":"7","key":"ref57","first-page":"2149","article-title":"Life cycle assessment of integrated additive-subtractive concrete 3D printing","volume":"112","author":"I Mu\ufffdoz","year":"2021","journal-title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology"},{"key":"ref58","volume":"14","author":"M Salari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environmental Assessment of 3D Printed Concrete: Potentials and Challenges, Perspectives, and Opportunities"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18040825","article-title":"Strategies for Minimizing Environmental Impact in Construction: A Case Study of a Cementitious 3D Printed Lost Formwork for a Staircase","volume":"18","author":"S V Albrecht","journal-title":"Materials"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref60","first-page":"513","article-title":"Lime and hemp concrete LCA: a dynamic approach of GHG emissions and capture","volume":"35","author":"T Lecompte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Academic Journal of Civil Engineering"},{"key":"ref61","article-title":"Biogenic carbon in buildings: a critical overview of LCA methods","author":"E Hoxha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Buildings and Cities"}],"container-title":[],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T10:50:56Z","timestamp":1774608656000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ssrn.com\/abstract=6478099"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"references-count":61,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.6478099","relation":{},"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"subtype":"preprint"}}