{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T23:16:43Z","timestamp":1793661403225,"version":"4.5.1"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2006]]},"group-title":"SSRN","reference-count":97,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>We present a positive model of integrity that, as we distinguish and define integrity, provides powerful access to increased performance for individuals, groups, organizations, and societies. Our model reveals the causal link between integrity and increased performance, quality of life, and value-creation for all entities, and provides access to that causal link. Integrity is thus a factor of production as important as knowledge and technology, yet its major role in productivity and performance has been largely hidden or unnoticed, or even ignored by economists and others.\n\nThe philosophical discourse, and common usage as reflected in dictionary definitions, leave an overlap and confusion among the four phenomena of integrity, morality, ethics, and legality. This overlap and confusion confound the four phenomena so that the efficacy and potential power of each is seriously diminished. \n\nIn this new model, we distinguish all four phenomena - integrity, morality, ethics, and legality - as existing within two separate realms. Integrity exists in a positive realm devoid of normative content. Integrity is thus not about good or bad, or right or wrong, or what should or should not be. Morality, ethics and legality exist in a normative realm of virtues (that is, they are about good and bad, right and wrong, or what should or should not be). Furthermore, within their respective realms, each of the four phenomena is distinguished as belonging to a distinct and separate domain, and the definition of each as a term is made clear, unambiguous, and non-overlapping.\n\nWe distinguish the domain of integrity as the objective state or condition of an object, system, person, group, or organizational entity, and, consistent with the first two of the three definitions in Webster's dictionary, define integrity as a state or condition of being whole, complete, unbroken, unimpaired, sound, perfect condition.\n\nWe assert that integrity (the condition of being whole and complete) is a necessary condition for workability, and that the resultant level of workability determines the available opportunity for performance. Hence, the way we treat integrity in our model provides an unambiguous and actionable access to the opportunity for superior performance, no matter how one defines performance.\n\nFor an individual we distinguish integrity as a matter of that person's word being whole and complete. For a group or organizational entity we define integrity as that group's or organization's word being whole and complete. A group's or organization's word consists of what is said between the people in that group or organization, and what is said by or on behalf of the group or organization. In that context, we define integrity for an individual, group, or organization as: honoring one's word.\n\nOversimplifying somewhat, honoring your word, as we define it, means you either keep your word, or as soon as you know that you will not, you say that you will not be keeping your word to those who were counting on your word and clean up any mess you caused by not keeping your word. By keeping your word we mean doing what you said you would do and by the time you said you would do it.\n\nHonoring your word is also the route to creating whole and complete social and working relationships. In addition, it provides an actionable pathway to earning the trust of others.\n\nWe demonstrate that the application of cost-benefit analysis to honoring your word guarantees that you will be untrustworthy. And that, with one exception, you will not be a person of integrity, thereby reducing both the workability of your life and your opportunity for performance. The one exception to this form of being out of integrity is, if when giving your word you have announced that you will apply cost-benefit analysis to honoring your word. In this case you have maintained your integrity, but you have also announced that you are an unmitigated opportunist. The virtually automatic application of cost-benefit analysis to one's integrity (an inherent tendency in most of us) lies at the heart of much out-of-integrity and untrustworthy behavior in modern life.\n\nRegarding the relationship between integrity, and the three virtue phenomena of morality, ethics and legality, this new model: 1) encompasses all four terms in one consistent theory, 2) makes clear and unambiguous the moral compasses potentially available in each of the three virtue phenomena, and 3) by revealing the relationship between honoring the standards of the three virtue phenomena and performance (including being complete as a person and the quality of life), raises the likelihood that the now clear moral compasses can actually shape human behavior. This all falls out primarily from the unique treatment of integrity in our model as a purely positive phenomenon, independent of normative value judgments.\n\nIn summary, we show that defining integrity as honoring one's word (as we have defined honoring one's word): 1) provides an unambiguous and actionable access to the opportunity for superior performance and competitive advantage at both the individual and organizational level, and 2) empowers the three virtue phenomena of morality, ethics and legality.\n\n--------\n\nNote: This document, while still incomplete, is the most detailed of our various pieces on Integrity. It is 124 pages.\n\nSee the following papers for more details on our work on integrity:\n\n\"Integrity: Without It Nothing Works\" (5 pages) an interview of Michael Jensen by Karen Christensen on the topic of integrity available at &lt;a href=\"http:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1511274\"&gt;http:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1511274&lt;\/a&gt;) \n\nA shorter abridged version of the full paper is: \u201cIntegrity: A Positive Model that Incorporates the Normative Phenomena of Morality, Ethics and Legality -- Abridged\u201d (39 pages, available at &lt;a href=\"http:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1542759\"&gt;http:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1542759&lt;\/a&gt;)\n\nFor a full one-day workshop on integrity see: \u201cA New Model of Integrity: The Missing Factor Of Production (PDF file of Keynote and PowerPoint Slides)\u201d (152 pages) available at &lt;a href=\"http:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1559827\"&gt;http:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1559827&lt;\/a&gt;)<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.920625","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,12,28]],"date-time":"2011-12-28T11:54:17Z","timestamp":1325073257000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Integrity: A Positive Model that Incorporates the Normative Phenomena of Morality, Ethics and Legality"],"prefix":"10.2139","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2046-4999","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Werner","family":"Erhard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael C.","family":"Jensen (Deceased)","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Zaffron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"78","reference":[{"key":"ref1","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dermatologist barred from surgery: An emergency order against Dr. Michael A. Rosin takes effect immediately"},{"key":"ref2","author":"Ruger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rosin guilty of defrauding Medicare"},{"key":"ref3","article-title":"Turning on Their Own: A group of former prosecutors cites a colleague's pattern of misconduct","author":"Weinberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Accessed"},{"key":"ref4","first-page":"155","article-title":"For more in depth analysis of the out-of-integrity behavior of Milberg Weiss and its slide into oblivion see Elkind","author":"Keating","year":"2005","journal-title":"The Law Firm of Hubris, Hypocrisy & Greed"},{"key":"ref5","article-title":"The New Republic, major literary figures, and Harvard University see","author":"Barry","year":"2003","journal-title":"For fraud and dishonesty in reporting, writing at the New York Times"},{"key":"ref6","author":"Mashberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Boston Globe columnist Mike Barnicle's active imagination finally brings him down"},{"key":"ref7","article-title":"How Harvard Lost Russia","volume":"40","author":"Mcclintick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Institutional Investor"},{"key":"ref8","author":"Usatoday","year":"2002","journal-title":"Purloined letters"},{"key":"ref9","article-title":"For descriptions of the plagiarism of best selling historian Stephen Ambrose see Rosenblatt","author":"; V Warsh","year":"2002","journal-title":"The Tick-Tock"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1057\/palgrave.im.4340301","article-title":"This time it is personal: Employee online shopping at work","volume":"6","author":"Susan M Adams","year":"2005","journal-title":"An electronic version is"},{"key":"ref11","article-title":"Beech-Nut Nutrition Corporation","author":"Answers","year":"2007","journal-title":"Answers.com. Encyclopedia of Company Histories, Answers Corporation.Accessed"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/b978-0-7506-7223-8.50015-0","article-title":"Teaching Smart People How to Learn","author":"Chris Argyris","year":"1991","journal-title":"Harvard Business Review"},{"key":"ref13","author":"Chris Argyris","year":"1993","journal-title":"Knowledge for Action: A Guide to Overcoming Barriers to Organizational Change"},{"key":"ref14","year":"2007","journal-title":"Stewart vows after sentencing: Celebrity homemaker's ex-broker also gets 5-month sentence. CNNMoney.Accessed"},{"key":"ref15","article-title":"CEO to Leave Under Pressure at UnitedHealth","author":"James Bandler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref16","article-title":"A Wal-Mart Legend's Trail of Deceit","author":"James Bandler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref17","article-title":"Times Reporter Who Resigned Leaves Long Trail of Deception","author":"Dan Barry","year":"2003","journal-title":"NYTimes.com"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1177\/002224299005400105","article-title":"The Service Encounter: Diagnosing Favorable and Unfavorable Incidents","author":"Mary Bitner","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Marketing"},{"key":"ref19","article-title":"Ex-HP Board chair pleads not guilty in leak case: Dunn charged with felony counts of deception","author":"Pete Carey","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Mercury News"},{"key":"ref20","author":"Chron","year":"2007","journal-title":"Jury Hears Ex-Enron CEO Curse in Wall Street Call. Houston Chronicle.Accessed"},{"key":"ref21","author":"Cnnmoney","year":"2007","journal-title":"Waksal Pleads Guilty. CNNMoney.Accessed"},{"key":"ref22","author":"Cnnmoney","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adelphia founder sentenced to 15 years: John and Timothy Rigas are sentenced to prison nearly a year after their convictions. CNNMoney.com.Accessed"},{"key":"ref23","author":"Damian Cox","year":"2005","journal-title":"Integrity. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"},{"key":"ref24","author":"Antonio R Damasio","year":"1994","journal-title":"Decartes Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain"},{"key":"ref25","article-title":"H.P. Board Cuts Its Ties With Lawyer","author":"Damon Darlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"New York Times"},{"key":"ref26","article-title":"Hewlett-Packard Is Still Pondering Chairwoman's Fate","author":"Damon Darlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"New York Times"},{"key":"ref27","article-title":"Hewlett-Packard's Longtime Financial Chief Is Set to Retire","author":"Damon Darlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"New York Times"},{"key":"ref28","article-title":"Chairwoman Leaves Hewlett in Spying Furor","author":"Damon Darlin","year":"1923","journal-title":"New York Times"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674033177","author":"Frans De Waal","year":"1996","journal-title":"Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals"},{"key":"ref30","first-page":"155","article-title":"The Law Firm of Hubris, Hypocrisy & Greed","author":"Peter Elkind","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fortune"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/603265","author":"Encarta","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microsoft\ufffd Encarta\ufffd Reference Library"},{"key":"ref32","author":"Werner Erhard","year":"2007","journal-title":"The Ontological Laws of Human Nature: An Introduction\": Harvard Business School, Negotiation, Organizations and Markets Working Paper #08-01"},{"key":"ref33","article-title":"Wal-Mart Sues Ex-Executive, Saying He Stole $500,000","author":"Roben Farzad","year":"2005","journal-title":"New York Times"},{"key":"ref34","author":"Jeffrey Ford","year":"2005","journal-title":"Deadline Busting: How To Be A Star Performer: iUniverse"},{"key":"ref35","author":"Joshua Freed","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scandals: Stock Options Behind Many Recent Oustings"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/cbo9780511581427.002","author":"Milton Friedman","year":"1996","journal-title":"The Methodology of Positive Economics"},{"key":"ref37","author":"Elkhonon Goldberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"The Executive Brain: Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind"},{"key":"ref38","author":"Jens Erik Gould","year":"2006","journal-title":"High Crime Stifles Latin Economies"},{"key":"ref39","article-title":"Cablevision Gave Backdated Grant To Dead Official","author":"Peter Grant","year":"1922","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref40","author":"Geddes Grosset","year":"2002","journal-title":"The Complete Poems and Songs of Robert Burns V"},{"key":"ref41","author":"Rudolph Guliani","year":"2002","journal-title":"Leadership: Hyperion"},{"key":"ref42","volume":"9171","author":"Peter Gumbel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Autumn Of The Patriarch Sunday"},{"key":"ref43","author":"Mark D Hauser","year":"2006","journal-title":"Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense Of Right And Wrong"},{"key":"ref44","author":"Martin Heidegger","year":"1962"},{"key":"ref45","article-title":"The Decision To Trust","author":"Robert F Hurley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Harvard Business Review"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.321520","article-title":"Corporate Budgeting Is Broken: Let's Fix It","author":"Michael C Jensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Available from the Social Science Research Network"},{"key":"ref47","first-page":"379","article-title":"Available from the Social Science Research Network eLibrary at: http:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/Abstract=267651. An executive summary version of this article appears in the","volume":"9","author":"Michael C Jensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Paying People to Lie: The Truth About the Budgeting Process"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.876312","article-title":"Putting Integrity Into Finance Theory and Practice: A Positive Approach (pdf of Keynote slides)","author":"Michael C Jensen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Harvard NOM Working Paper No. 06-06, March. Available from the Social Science Research Network"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.561305","author":"Michael C Jensen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remuneration: Where We've Been, How We Got to Here, What are the Problems, and How to Fix Them"},{"key":"ref50","author":"Brent Kallestad","year":"2001","journal-title":"2 in 5 bosses don't keep their word, Florida State University survey shows"},{"key":"ref51","author":"Jasmina Kelemen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Jury Finds Enron's Lay, Skilling Guilty. MarketWatch, Dow Jones.Accessed"},{"key":"ref52","article-title":"HP Execs on Spying: It wasn't me","author":"Michelle Kessler","year":"1929","journal-title":"USA Today"},{"key":"ref53","author":"John Keynes","journal-title":"1891. The Scope and Method of Political Economy"},{"key":"ref54","author":"Joseph Ledoux","year":"1998","journal-title":"The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life"},{"key":"ref55","author":"Al Lewis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Wily MBA Students Lead Cheating"},{"key":"ref56","article-title":"Scandal Could Prompt Church to Sell Property","year":"2006","journal-title":"Los Angeles Times"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10551-008-9910-1","article-title":"A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: The Use of EthicsRelated Terms in 10 K Reports","author":"Tim Loughran","year":"2007","journal-title":"Unpublished Working Paper"},{"key":"ref58","author":"Katherine Mangan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Survey Finds Widespread Cheating in MBA Programs"},{"key":"ref59","author":"Susan Martin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dermatologist barred from surgery: An emergency order against Dr. Michael A. Rosin takes effect immediately"},{"key":"ref60","author":"Tom Mashberg","year":"1998","journal-title":"Boston Globe columnist Mike Barnicle's active imagination finally brings him down"},{"key":"ref61","author":"Donald Mccabe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Center For Academic Integrity Website Summary of Research on Cheating"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.5465\/amle.2006.22697018","author":"Donald L Mccabe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Academic Dishonesty in Graduate Business Programs: Prevalence, Causes, and Proposed Action"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref63","article-title":"How Harvard Lost Russia","volume":"40","author":"David Mcclintick","year":"2006","journal-title":"An electronic version is"},{"key":"ref64","author":"James D Mcwilliams","year":"2005","journal-title":"Businesses tighten up on personal use of Web"},{"key":"ref65","author":"Merriam-Webster","year":"2007","journal-title":"Merriam-Webster On Line Dictionary"},{"key":"ref66","article-title":"Tension Escalates Over HP Scandal: Board Calls Emergency Meeting Sunday","author":"Ellen Nakashima","year":"2006","journal-title":"Washingtonpost.com, Sept. 9. An electronic version is"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006269828051","article-title":"Promise-keeping: A Low Priority in a Hierarchy of Workplace Values","volume":"27","author":"Ellwood F Oakley","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Business Ethics"},{"key":"ref68","article-title":"Purloined letters","year":"2002","journal-title":"USAToday.com"},{"key":"ref69","author":"Shaheen Pasha","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lay and Skilling's day of reckoning: Enron ex-CEO and founder convicted on fraud and conspiracy charges; sentencing slated for September"},{"key":"ref70","author":"Therese Poletti","year":"1925","journal-title":"Toting up options scandal. Study: Fallout Trims $10.3 Billion from 152 Firms"},{"key":"ref71","article-title":"HP agrees to pay $14.5 million to settle civil claims in boardspying case","author":"Therese Poletti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mercury News"},{"key":"ref72","author":"Karl Popper","year":"1959","journal-title":"The Logic of Scientific Discovery"},{"key":"ref73","article-title":"Survey: Many Employees Cynical About 'Corporate Values","author":"Chris Reidy","year":"1929","journal-title":"Boston Globe"},{"key":"ref74","author":"Matt Ridley","year":"1996","journal-title":"The Origins of Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation"},{"key":"ref75","author":"Roger Rosenblatt","year":"2002","journal-title":"When The Hero Takes A Fall"},{"key":"ref76","first-page":"75","author":"Paul Roush","year":"2004","journal-title":"The Moral Foundations of Leadership"},{"key":"ref77","author":"Todd Ruger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Herald Tribune An electronic version is"},{"key":"ref78","article-title":"Cubicle Culture: Why Preparing Others for an Effort's Failure Can Bring You Success","author":"Jared Sandberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.655822","article-title":"Managing for Breakthroughs in Productivity","author":"Allan L Scherr","year":"2005","journal-title":"Barbados Group Working Paper No. 1-05, January. Available from the Social Science Research Network"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.920623","article-title":"A New Model of Leadership","author":"Allan L Scherr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Harvard NOM Research Paper"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139173438","author":"John Searle","year":"1969","journal-title":"Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language"},{"key":"ref82","author":"Siliconevalley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Expanded coverage of the HP scandal"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1108\/09534819910263640","volume":"12","author":"Tony Simons","year":"1999","journal-title":"Behavioral Integrity as a Critical Ingredient for Transformational Leadership"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.13.1.18.543","article-title":"Behavioral Integrity: The Perceived Alignment Between Manager's Words and Deeds as a Research Focus","volume":"13","author":"Tony Simons","year":"2002","journal-title":"Organization Science"},{"key":"ref85","article-title":"Academic Misconduct Major Problem in Canada, Study Find. Accessed","author":"Thomas Landon","year":"2006","journal-title":"New York Times"},{"key":"ref86","author":"Van Voris","year":"2006","journal-title":"Wal-Mart Ex-Vice Chairman Coughlin Gets House Arrest (Update4)"},{"key":"ref87","article-title":"Leak Proof: H.P.'s Hurd Admits 'Disturbing' Tactics Were Used in Probe","author":"Peter Waldman","year":"1923","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref88","article-title":"There is no nobility in music theft","author":"Patti Waldmeir","year":"2003","journal-title":"Financial Times"},{"key":"ref89","article-title":"Key H-P Documents","volume":"7","year":"2006","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal Online, Sept"},{"key":"ref90","article-title":"Perfect Payday: Options Scorecard","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref91","article-title":"Sock Puppet Bites Man","year":"2006","journal-title":"Wall Street Journal"},{"key":"ref92","author":"David Warsh","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Tick-Tock"},{"key":"ref93","author":"Webster&apos;s","year":"1994","journal-title":"Webster's New World Dictionary on PowerCD version 2.1, based on Webster's New World Dictionary\ufffd, Third College Edition"},{"key":"ref94","author":"Webster&apos;s","year":"1998","journal-title":"Webster's New Word Dictionary & Thesaurus"},{"key":"ref95","article-title":"Turning on Their Own: A group of former prosecutors cites a colleague's pattern of misconduct","author":"Steve Weinberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Accessed"},{"key":"ref96","author":"Wikipedia Contributors. Enron","year":"2007","journal-title":"The Free Encyclopedia"},{"key":"ref97","article-title":"Values and Value: Moral Economics","author":"Paul J Zak","journal-title":"Moral Markets: The Critical Role of Human Values"}],"container-title":[],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T11:48:34Z","timestamp":1786448914000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ssrn.com\/abstract=920625"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2006]]},"references-count":97,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.920625","relation":{},"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2006]]},"subtype":"preprint"}}