{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:16:49Z","timestamp":1791998209147,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"IWA Publishing","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":["iwaponline.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Although recent studies suggest contamination by bacteria and nitrate in private drinking water systems is of increasing concern, data describing contaminants associated with the corrosion of onsite plumbing are scarce. This study reports on the analysis of 2,146 samples submitted by private system homeowners. Almost 20% of first draw samples submitted contained lead concentrations above the United States Environmental Protection Agency action level of 15 \u03bcg\/L, suggesting that corrosion may be a significant public health problem. Correlations between lead, copper, and zinc suggested brass components as a likely lead source, and dug\/bored wells had significantly higher lead concentrations as compared to drilled wells. A random subset of samples selected to quantify particulate lead indicated that, on average, 47% of lead in the first draws was in the particulate form, although the occurrence was highly variable. While flushing the tap reduced lead below 15 \u03bcg\/L for most systems, some systems experienced an increase, perhaps attributable to particulate lead or lead-bearing components upstream of the faucet (e.g., valves, pumps). Results suggest that without including a focus on private as well as municipal systems it will be very difficult to meet the existing national public health goal to eliminate elevated blood lead levels in children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2015.275","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]],"date-time":"2015-09-01T07:57:07Z","timestamp":1441094227000},"page":"897-908","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/iwapcrossmarkpolicypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":92,"title":["Incidence of waterborne lead in private drinking water systems in Virginia"],"prefix":"10.2166","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Kelsey J.","family":"Pieper","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, 200 Seitz Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leigh-Anne H.","family":"Krometis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, 200 Seitz Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel L.","family":"Gallagher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian L.","family":"Benham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, 200 Seitz Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Edwards","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"945","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C1","volume-title":"Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater","author":"American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation","year":"1998","edition":"20th edn"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2010.10.003","article-title":"Association between children's blood lead levels, lead service lines, and water disinfection, Washington, DC, 1998\u20132006","volume":"111","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6836","DOI":"10.1021\/es501342j","article-title":"Profile sampling to characterize particulate lead risks in potable water","volume":"48","author":"Clark","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1093\/chemse\/bjl010","article-title":"Evaluation of copper speciation and water quality factors that affect aqueous copper tasting response","volume":"31","author":"Cuppett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem. Senses"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.04.019","article-title":"Source and occurrence of particulate lead in tap water","volume":"44","author":"Deshommes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1186\/1752-153X-6-138","article-title":"Experimental determination of the oral bioavailability and bioaccessibility of lead particles","volume":"6","author":"Deshommes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Cent. J."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeSimone L. A. 2009 Quality of water from domestic wells in principal aquifers of the United States, 1991\u20132004: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2008\u20135227. US Geological Survey, Northborough, MA, USA. p. 139. Available at: http:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/sir\/2008\/5227\/.","DOI":"10.3133\/sir20085227"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2166\/wp.2009.051","article-title":"Factors in\ufb02uencing public perception of drinking water quality","volume":"12","author":"Doria","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Policy"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2009.06.031","article-title":"Perceptions of drinking water quality and risk and its effect on behaviour: a cross-national study","volume":"407","author":"Doria","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1021\/es4034952","article-title":"Fetal death and reduced birth rates associated with exposure to lead-contaminated drinking water","volume":"48","author":"Edwards","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1618","DOI":"10.1021\/es802789w","article-title":"Elevated blood lead levels in young children due to lead-contaminated drinking water: Washington, DC, 2001\u20132004","volume":"43","author":"Edwards","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.10.007","article-title":"Environmental determinants of different blood lead levels in children: a quantile analysis from a nationwide survey","volume":"74","author":"Etchevers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C13","volume-title":"National Statistical Assessment of Rural Water Conditions","author":"Francis","year":"1982"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C14","author":"Freud","year":"2012"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2011.139","article-title":"Influences on the water testing behaviors of private well owners","volume":"9","author":"Imgrund","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2007-3608","article-title":"Trends in blood lead levels and blood lead testing among US children aged 1 to 5 years, 1988\u20132004","volume":"123","author":"Jones","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C17","first-page":"16","article-title":"Private drinking water quality in rural Wisconsin","volume":"75","author":"Knobeloch","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.11241","article-title":"Lead exposures in U.S. children, 2008: implications for prevention","volume":"116","author":"Levin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C19","author":"Lytle","year":"1996"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C20","unstructured":"Maas R. P. Patch S. C. 1990 Lead contamination of North Carolina domestic tapwater: prevalence, risk factors, and control measures. UNC-Asheville Environmental Quality Institute Technical Report #90-003. Asheville, NC."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C21","first-page":"8","article-title":"Lead-leaching characteristics of submersible residential water pumps","volume":"60","author":"Maas","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1551-8833.1985.tb05557.x","article-title":"Metal mobilization in home well water systems in Nova Scotia","volume":"77","author":"Maessen","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Works Assoc."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:2(136)","article-title":"Importance of Pb and Cu particulate species for corrosion control","volume":"130","author":"McNeill","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6575","DOI":"10.1021\/es200633p","article-title":"Age-associated variation in sensory perception of iron in drinking water and the potential for overexposure in the human population","volume":"45","author":"Mirlohi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C25","unstructured":"Oliphant R. J. 1983 Summary report on the contamination of potable water by lead from soldered joints. External Rept. 125-E. Water Research Centre Engineering, Swindon, UK."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1994.03520040046039","article-title":"The decline in blood lead levels in the United States: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES)","volume":"272","author":"Pirkle","year":"1994","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C27","volume-title":"Contribution of service line and plumbing fixtures to lead and copper rule compliance issues","author":"Sandvig","year":"2008"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00454749","article-title":"Causes of temporal variability of lead in domestic plumbing systems","volume":"15","author":"Schock","year":"1990","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2014.026","article-title":"Associations between fecal indicator bacteria prevalence and demographic data in private water supplies in Virginia","volume":"12","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C30","first-page":"6","article-title":"A survey of lead, nitrate and radon contamination of private individual water systems in Pennsylvania","volume":"55","author":"Swistock","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C31","first-page":"60","article-title":"Water quality and management of private drinking water wells in Pennsylvania","volume":"75","author":"Swistock","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1551-8833.2007.tb07959.x","article-title":"Lead particles in potable water","volume":"99","author":"Triantafyllidou","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Works Assoc."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-012-2637-6","article-title":"Lead (Pb) quantification in potable water samples: implications for regulatory compliance and assessment of human exposure","volume":"185","author":"Triantafyllidou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C34","volume-title":"Healthy people 2020: Improving the health of Americans","author":"US Department of Health, Human Services","year":"2014"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C35","volume-title":"Lead in your drinking water","author":"US Environmental Protection Agency","year":"1993"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C36","volume-title":"Private drinking water wells","author":"US Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2012"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C37","volume-title":"Public drinking water systems programs","author":"US Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2013"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C38","volume-title":"Lead in drinking water","author":"US Environmental Protection Agency","year":"2014"},{"key":"2020032615583273200_JWH-D-14-00275C39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1111\/gwat.12121","article-title":"Contributing factors to disease outbreaks associated with untreated groundwater","volume":"52","author":"Wallender","year":"2014","journal-title":"Groundwater"}],"container-title":["Journal of Water and Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/iwaponline.com\/jwh\/article-pdf\/13\/3\/897\/394934\/jwh0130897.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/iwaponline.com\/jwh\/article-pdf\/13\/3\/897\/394934\/jwh0130897.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,7]],"date-time":"2020-09-07T16:57:16Z","timestamp":1599497836000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/iwaponline.com\/jwh\/article\/13\/3\/897\/28428\/Incidence-of-waterborne-lead-in-private-drinking"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,18]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,18]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/wh.2015.275","relation":{},"ISSN":["1477-8920","1996-7829"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1477-8920","type":"print"},{"value":"1996-7829","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,18]]}}}