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While widely studied for pollution control, little is known about its microbial communities. In this study, we evaluated the system's effectiveness in reducing coliform bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant and hemolytic strains, as indicators of pollution and public health risk in Dongda Creek, Taiwan. Results showed a significant reduction in coliform levels, from 105\u2013106 CFU\/100 mL to 102 CFU\/100 mL, along with notable improvements in water quality parameters like turbidity, total dissolved solids, and oxidation\u2013reduction potential. Antibiotic-resistant coliforms were less prevalent in treated water, demonstrating the system's efficacy in control of bacterial flora that poses a risk to public health. Third-generation sequencing revealed reduced species richness in treated wastewater, while biofilm samples showed greater bacterial diversity. Gravel's surface area supported biofilm formation, promoting microbial communities capable of degrading organic pollutants. The activity of biofilm microbial community also decreased turbidity and dissolved solids, while shifting bacterial composition in the wastewater. These findings underscore the system's potential as a sustainable, effective model for ecological wastewater treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2025.110","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]],"date-time":"2025-07-23T12:24:50Z","timestamp":1753273490000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2166\/iwapcrossmarkpolicypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Removal of coliform pollution using a gravel-packed contact bed: reduction effect and microbial community analysis"],"prefix":"10.2166","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8162-1727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wan-Rou","family":"Lin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"a Bioresource Collection and Research Center (BCRC), Food Industry Research and Development Institute (FIRDI), Hsinchu, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3396-9834","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ren-Cheng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"b Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"},{"name":"c Center for Ecology and Environment, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chun-Lun","family":"Yen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"b Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"},{"name":"c Center for Ecology and Environment, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8376-5070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pi-Han","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"b Department of Life Science, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"},{"name":"c Center for Ecology and Environment, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"},{"name":"d Life Science Research Center, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"945","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025081205522185600_WST-D-25-00157C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12030440","article-title":"The impact of tetracycline pollution on the aquatic environment and removal strategies","volume":"12","year":"2023","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"2025081205522185600_WST-D-25-00157C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555819804","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance in Clostridium and Brachyspira spp. and other anaerobes","volume-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria From Livestock and Companion Animals","author":"Schwarz","year":"2018"},{"key":"2025081205522185600_WST-D-25-00157C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoser.2014.07.005","article-title":"Beyond the concrete: accounting for ecosystem services from free-flowing rivers","volume":"10","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecosystem Services"},{"key":"2025081205522185600_WST-D-25-00157C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-8574(99)00017-8","article-title":"Denitrification in constructed free-water surface wetlands: II. 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