{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T16:10:21Z","timestamp":1790525421394,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,9]],"date-time":"2011-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1299628800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/legalcode"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["openmedicinalchemistryjournal.com","benthamopen.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["TOMCJ"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Protozoan parasites cause serious human and zoonotic infections, including life-threatening diseases such as malaria, African and American trypanosomiasis, and leishmaniasis. These diseases are no more common in the developed world, but together they still threaten about 40% of the world population (WHO estimates). Mortality and morbidity are high in developing countries, and the lack of vaccines makes chemotherapy the only suitable option. However, available antiparasitic drugs are hampered by more or less marked toxic side effects and by the emergence of drug resistance. As the main prevalence of parasitic diseases occurs in the poorest areas of the world, the interest of the pharmaceutical companies in the development of new drugs has been traditionally scarce. The establishment of public-private partnerships focused on tropical diseases is changing this situation, allowing the exploitation of the technological advances that took place during the past decade related to genomics, proteomics, and in silico drug discovery approaches. These techniques allowed the identification of new molecular targets that in some cases are shared by different parasites. In this review we outline the recent developments in the fields of protease and topoisomerase inhibitors, antimicrobial and cell-penetrating peptides, and RNA interference. We also report on the rapidly developing field of new vectors (micro and nano particles, mesoporous materials) that in some cases can cross host or parasite natural barriers and, by selectively delivering new or already in use drugs to the target site, minimize dosage and side effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2174\/1874104501105010004","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,17]],"date-time":"2011-03-17T05:40:36Z","timestamp":1300340436000},"page":"04-10","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Current Developments in the Therapy of Protozoan Infections"],"prefix":"10.2174","volume":"05","author":[{"given":"Mario","family":"Zucca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dianella","family":"Savoia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"965","reference":[{"key":"refR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd1824","volume":"4","author":"Pink R","year":"2005","unstructured":"Pink R, Hudson A, Mouries AM, Bendig M. \n                Opportunities and challenges in antiparasitic drug discovery \n                Nat Rev Drug Discov  \n                2005; \n                4\n                : 727-40.","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov"},{"key":"refR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.2174\/138945008786786118","volume":"9","author":"Reguera MR","year":"2008","unstructured":"Reguera MR, Diaz-Gonzalez R, Perez-Pertejo Y, Balana-Fouce R. \n                Characterizing the bi-subunit type IB DNA topoisomerase of Leishmania parasites; a novel scenario for drug intervention in trypanosomatids \n                Curr Drug Targets  \n                2008; \n                9\n                : 966-78.","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets"},{"key":"refR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2009.06.006","volume":"25","author":"Dube A","year":"2009","unstructured":"Dube A, Gupta R, Singh N. \n                Reporter genes facilitating discovery of drugs targeting protozoan parasites \n                Trends Parasitol  \n                2009; \n                25\n                : 432-9.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"refR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762009000900034","volume":"104","author":"McKerrow HJ","year":"2009","unstructured":"McKerrow HJ, Doyle SP, Engel CJ, et al. \n                Two approaches to discovering and developing new drugs for Chagas disease \n                Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz  \n                2009; \n                104\n                : 263-9.","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz"},{"key":"refR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1818","DOI":"10.1021\/ci600451t","volume":"47","author":"Kasam V","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kasam V, Zimmermann M, Maass A, et al. \n                Design of new plasmepsin inhibitors: a virtual high throughput screening approach on the EGEE grid \n                J Chem Inf Model  \n                2007; \n                47\n                : 1818-28.","journal-title":"J. Chem. Inf. Model"},{"key":"refR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2007.01.002","volume":"30","author":"Jana S","year":"2007","unstructured":"Jana S, Paliwal J. \n                Novel molecular targets for antimalarial chemotherapy \n                Int J Antimicrob Agents  \n                2007; \n                30\n                : 4-10.","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"refR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.3109\/14756360902797328","volume":"24","author":"Loser R","year":"2009","unstructured":"Loser R, Gutschow M. \n                Dipeptide-derived nitriles containing additional electrophilic sites: potentially irreversible inhibitors of cysteine proteases \n                J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem  \n                2009; \n                24\n                : 1245-52.","journal-title":"J. Enzyme Inhib. Med. Chem"},{"key":"refR8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1659","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612023394197","volume":"8","author":"Rosenthal PJ","year":"2002","unstructured":"Rosenthal PJ, Sijwali PS, Singh A, Shenai BR. \n                Cysteine proteases of malaria parasites: targets for chemotherapy \n                Curr Pharm Des  \n                2002; \n                8\n                : 1659-72.","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des"},{"key":"refR9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3947","DOI":"10.1039\/b908489d","volume":"7","author":"Fah C","year":"2009","unstructured":"Fah C, Hardegger AL, Baitsch L, et al. \n                New organofluorine building blocks: inhibition of the malarial aspartic proteases plasmepsin II and IV by alicyclic alpha,alpha-difluoroketone hydrates \n                Org Biomol Chem  \n                2009; \n                7\n                : 3947-57.","journal-title":"Org. Biomol. Chem"},{"key":"refR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200504119","volume":"45","author":"Hof F","year":"2006","unstructured":"Hof F, Schutz A, Fah C, et al. \n                Starving the malaria parasite: inhibitors active against the aspartic proteases plasmepsins I, II, and IV \n                Angew Chem Int Ed Engl  \n                2006; \n                45\n                : 2138-41.","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl"},{"key":"refR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8293","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200903747","volume":"48","author":"Liu K","year":"2009","unstructured":"Liu K, Shi H, Xiao H, et al. \n                Functional profiling, identification, and inhibition of plasmepsins in intraerythrocytic malaria parasites \n                Angew Chem Int Ed Engl  \n                2009; \n                48\n                : 8293-7.","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl"},{"key":"refR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.200900078","volume":"4","author":"Friedman R","year":"2009","unstructured":"Friedman R, Caflisch A. \n                Discovery of plasmepsin inhibitors by fragment-based docking and consensus scoring \n                ChemMedChem  \n                2009; \n                4\n                : 1317-26.","journal-title":"ChemMedChem"},{"key":"refR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.200900452","volume":"5","author":"Luksch T","year":"2010","unstructured":"Luksch T, Blum A, Klee N, Diederich EW, Sotriffer AC, Klebe G. \n                Pyrrolidine derivatives as plasmepsin inhibitors: binding mode analysis assisted by molecular dynamics simulations of a highly flexible protein \n                ChemMedChem  \n                2010; \n                5\n                : 443-54.","journal-title":"ChemMedChem"},{"key":"refR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3174","DOI":"10.2174\/092986709788802971","volume":"16","author":"Duschak GV","year":"2009","unstructured":"Duschak GV, Couto SA. \n                Cruzipain, the major cysteine protease of Trypanosoma cruzi: a sulfated glycoprotein antigen as relevant candidate for vaccine development and drug target. A review \n                Curr Med Chem  \n                2009; \n                16\n                : 3174-202.","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem"},{"key":"refR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2006.02.026","volume":"16","author":"Vicik R","year":"2006","unstructured":"Vicik R, Hoerr V, Glaser M, et al. \n                Aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylate inhibitors targeting the major cysteine protease of Trypanosoma brucei as lead trypanocidal agents \n                Bioorg Med Chem Lett  \n                2006; \n                16\n                : 2753-7.","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett"},{"key":"refR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5282","DOI":"10.1021\/jp810549n","volume":"113","author":"Buback V","year":"2009","unstructured":"Buback V, Mladenovic M, Engels B, Schirmeister T. \n                Rational design of improved aziridine-based inhibitors of cysteine proteases \n                J Phys Chem B  \n                2009; \n                113\n                : 5282-9.","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"refR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2439","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01430-05","volume":"50","author":"Ponte-Sucre A","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ponte-Sucre A, Vicik R, Schultheis M, Schirmeister T, Moll H. \n                Aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylates, peptidomimetic cysteine protease inhibitors with antileishmanial activity \n                Antimicrob Agents Chemother  \n                2006; \n                50\n                : 2439-47.","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother"},{"key":"refR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6286","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkl829","volume":"34","author":"Ganguly A","year":"2006","unstructured":"Ganguly A, Das BB, Sen N, Roy A, Dasgupta BS, Majumder KH. \n                'LeishMan' topoisomerase I: an ideal chimera for unraveling the role of the small subunit of unusual bi-subunit topoisomerase I from Leishmania donovani \n                Nucleic Acids Res  \n                2006; \n                34\n                : 6286-97.","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res"},{"key":"refR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2005.01.005","volume":"93","author":"Deterding A","year":"2005","unstructured":"Deterding A, Dungey AF, Thompson AK, Steverding D. \n                Anti-trypanosomal activities of DNA topoisomerase inhibitors \n                Acta Trop  \n                2005; \n                93\n                : 311-6.","journal-title":"Acta Trop"},{"key":"refR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-3161","volume":"89","author":"Marquis FJ","year":"2003","unstructured":"Marquis FJ, Makhey D, LaVoie JE, Olivier M. \n                Effects of topoisomerases inhibitors protoberberine on Leishmania donovani growth, macrophage function, and infection \n                J Parasitol  \n                2003; \n                89\n                : 1048-52.","journal-title":"J. Parasitol"},{"key":"refR21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2623","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.9.2623-2627.2001","volume":"45","author":"Proulx EM","year":"2001","unstructured":"Proulx EM, Desormeaux A, Marquis FJ, Olivier M, Bergeron GM. \n                Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with sterically stabilized liposomes containing camptothecin \n                Antimicrob Agents Chemother  \n                2001; \n                45\n                : 2623-7.","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother"},{"key":"refR22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.cdd.4401435","volume":"11","author":"Sen N","year":"2004","unstructured":"Sen N, Das BB, Ganguly A, et al. \n                Camptothecin induced mitochondrial dysfunction leading to programmed cell death in unicellular hemoflagellate Leishmania donovani \n                Cell Death Differ  \n                2004; \n                11\n                : 924-36.","journal-title":"Cell Death Differ"},{"key":"refR23","first-page":"877","volume":"40","author":"Sithiprom S","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sithiprom S, Petmitr S, Chavalitshewinkoon-Petmitr P. \n                Partial purification and characterization of Trichomonas vaginalis DNA topoisomerase II \n                Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health  \n                2009; \n                40\n                : 877-5.","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"refR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8856","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.16.8856","volume":"97","author":"Hancock RE","year":"2000","unstructured":"Hancock RE, Scott MG. \n                The role of antimicrobial peptides in animal defenses \n                Proc Natl Acad Sci USA  \n                2000; \n                97\n                : 8856-61.","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"refR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3951","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms10093951","volume":"10","author":"Steinstraesser L","year":"2009","unstructured":"Steinstraesser L, Kraneburg UM, Hirsch T, et al. \n                Host defense peptides as effector molecules of the innate immune response: a sledgehammer for drug resistance? \n                Int J Mol Sci  \n                2009; \n                10\n                : 3951-70.","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci"},{"key":"refR26","first-page":"376","volume":"12","author":"Bommarius B","year":"2009","unstructured":"Bommarius B, Kalman D. \n                Antimicrobial and host defense peptides for therapeutic use against multidrug-resistant pathogens: new hope on the horizon \n                IDrugs  \n                2009; \n                12\n                : 376-80.","journal-title":"IDrugs"},{"key":"refR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6474","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2009.07358.x","volume":"276","author":"Mor A","year":"2009","unstructured":"Mor A. \n                Multifunctional host defense peptides: antiparasitic activities \n                FEBS J  \n                2009; \n                276\n                : 6474-82.","journal-title":"FEBS J"},{"key":"refR28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2002.tb11000.x","volume":"206","author":"Hancock RE","year":"2002","unstructured":"Hancock RE, Rozek A. \n                Role of membranes in the activities of antimicrobial cationic peptides \n                FEMS Microbiol Lett  \n                2002; \n                206\n                : 143-9.","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett"},{"key":"refR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0282(1998)47:6<451::AID-BIP4>3.0.CO;2-F","volume":"47","author":"Oren Z","year":"1998","unstructured":"Oren Z, Shai Y. \n                Mode of action of linear amphipathic alpha-helical antimicrobial peptides \n                Biopolymers  \n                1998; \n                47\n                : 451-63.","journal-title":"Biopolymers"},{"key":"refR30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1139\/o98-026","volume":"76","author":"Hwang PM","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hwang PM, Vogel HJ. \n                Structure-function relationships of antimicrobial peptides \n                Biochem Cell Biol  \n                1998; \n                76\n                : 235-46.","journal-title":"Biochem. Cell. Biol"},{"key":"refR31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2008.11.002","volume":"1788","author":"Rivas L","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rivas L, Luque-Ortega RJ, Andreu D. \n                Amphibian antimicrobial peptides and Protozoa: lessons from parasites \n                Biochim Biophys Acta  \n                2009; \n                1788\n                : 1570-81.","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"refR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2008.07.032","volume":"16","author":"Savoia D","year":"2008","unstructured":"Savoia D, Guerrini R, Marzola E, Salvadori S. \n                Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of dermaseptin S1 analogues \n                Bioorg Med Chem  \n                2008; \n                16\n                : 8205-9.","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem"},{"key":"refR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.07-096081","volume":"22","author":"Luque-Ortega RJ","year":"2008","unstructured":"Luque-Ortega RJ, van\u2019t Hof W, Veerman CE, Saugar MJ, Rivas L. \n                Human antimicrobial peptide histatin 5 is a cell-penetrating peptide targeting mitochondrial ATP synthesis in Leishmania \n                FASEB J  \n                2008; \n                22\n                : 1817-28.","journal-title":"FASEB J"},{"key":"refR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7421","DOI":"10.1021\/jm900622d","volume":"52","author":"Sharma KR","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sharma KR, Reddy PR, Tegge W, Jain R. \n                Discovery of Trp-His and His-Arg analogues as new structural classes of short antimicrobial peptides \n                J Med Chem  \n                2009; \n                52\n                : 7421-31.","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem"},{"key":"refR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2009.07544.x","volume":"277","author":"Rodziewicz-Motowidlo S","year":"2010","unstructured":"Rodziewicz-Motowidlo S, Mickiewicz B, Greber K, et al. \n                Antimicrobial and conformational studies of the active and inactive analogues of the protegrin-1 peptide \n                FEBS J  \n                2010; \n                277\n                : 1010-22.","journal-title":"FEBS J"},{"key":"refR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1021\/bi902166d","volume":"49","author":"Saviello RM","year":"2010","unstructured":"Saviello RM, Malfi S, Campiglia P, et al. \n                New insight into the mechanism of action of the temporin antimicrobial peptides \n                Biochemistry  \n                2010; \n                49\n                : 1477-85.","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"refR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200900071","volume":"4","author":"Prudencio M","year":"2009","unstructured":"Prudencio M, Lehmann JM. \n                Illuminating the host - how RNAi screens shed light on host-pathogen interactions \n                Biotechnol J  \n                2009; \n                4\n                : 826-37.","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J"},{"key":"refR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2009.07.008","volume":"40","author":"Tyc J","year":"2010","unstructured":"Tyc J, Faktorova D, Kriegova E, et al. \n                Probing for primary functions of prohibitin in Trypanosoma brucei \n                Int J Parasitol  \n                2010; \n                40\n                : 73-83.","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol"},{"key":"refR39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2009.09.006","volume":"169","author":"Price PH","year":"2010","unstructured":"Price PH, Guther LM, Ferguson AM, Smith FD. \n                Myristoyl-CoA:protein N-myristoyltransferase depletion in trypanosomes causes avirulence and endocytic defects \n                Mol Biochem Parasitol  \n                2010; \n                169\n                : 55-8.","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol"},{"key":"refR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2009.09.001","volume":"169","author":"Caceres JA","year":"2010","unstructured":"Caceres JA, Michels AP, Hannaert V. \n                Genetic validation of aldolase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase as drug targets in Trypanosoma brucei \n                Mol Biochem Parasitol  \n                2010; \n                169\n                : 50-4.","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol"},{"key":"refR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-2-46","volume":"2","author":"Monnerat S","year":"2009","unstructured":"Monnerat S, Clucas C, Brown E, Mottram CJ, Hammarton CT. \n                Searching for novel cell cycle regulators in Trypanosoma brucei with an RNA interference screen \n                BMC Res Notes  \n                2009; \n                2\n                : 46.","journal-title":"BMC Res. Notes"},{"key":"refR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000628","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000628","volume":"5","author":"Vinet FA","year":"2009","unstructured":"Vinet FA, Fukuda M, Turco JS, Descoteaux A. \n                The Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan excludes the vesicular proton-ATPase from phagosomes by impairing the recruitment of synaptotagmin V \n                PLoS Pathog  \n                2009; \n                5\n                : e1000628.","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"refR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175241","volume":"326","author":"Blandin AS","year":"2009","unstructured":"Blandin AS, Wang-Sattler R, Lamacchia M, et al. \n                Dissecting the genetic basis of resistance to malaria parasites in Anopheles gambiae \n                Science  \n                2009; \n                326\n                : 147-50.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"refR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14687","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.25.14687","volume":"95","author":"Ngo H","year":"1998","unstructured":"Ngo H, Tschudi C, Gull K, Ullu E. \n                Double-stranded RNA induces mRNA degradation in Trypanosoma brucei \n                Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A  \n                1998; \n                95\n                : 14687-92.","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A"},{"key":"refR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40174","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M008405200","volume":"275","author":"Wang Z","year":"2000","unstructured":"Wang Z, Morris CJ, Drew EM, Englund TP. \n                Inhibition of Trypanosoma brucei gene expression by RNA interference using an integratable vector with opposing T7 promoters \n                J Biol Chem  \n                2000; \n                275\n                : 40174-9.","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem"},{"key":"refR46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2121-9-68","volume":"9","author":"Claser C","year":"2008","unstructured":"Claser C, Curcio M, de Mello MS, Silveira VE, Monteiro PH, Rodrigues MM. \n                Silencing cytokeratin 18 gene inhibits intracellular replication of Trypanosoma cruzi in HeLa cells but not binding and invasion of trypanosomes \n                BMC Cell Biol  \n                2008; \n                9\n                : 68.","journal-title":"BMC Cell Biol"},{"key":"refR47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07774","volume":"458","author":"Aouadi M","year":"2009","unstructured":"Aouadi M, Tesz JG, Nicoloro MS, et al. \n                Orally delivered siRNA targeting macrophage Map4k4 suppresses systemic inflammation \n                Nature  \n                2009; \n                458\n                : 1180-4.","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"refR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2008.215","volume":"17","author":"Crombez L","year":"2009","unstructured":"Crombez L, Aldrian-Herrada G, Konate K, et al. \n                A new potent secondary amphipathic cell-penetrating peptide for siRNA delivery into mammalian cells \n                Mol Ther  \n                2009; \n                17\n                : 95-103.","journal-title":"Mol. Ther"},{"key":"refR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(88)90263-2","volume":"55","author":"Frankel DA","year":"1988","unstructured":"Frankel DA, Pabo OC. \n                Cellular uptake of the tat protein from human immunodeficiency virus \n                Cell  \n                1988; \n                55\n                : 1189-93.","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"refR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(88)90262-0","volume":"55","author":"Green M","year":"1988","unstructured":"Green M, Loewenstein MP. \n                Autonomous functional domains of chemically synthesized human immunodeficiency virus tat transactivator protein \n                Cell  \n                1988; \n                55\n                : 1179-88.","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"refR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2009.04.005","volume":"61","author":"Endoh T","year":"2009","unstructured":"Endoh T, Ohtsuki T. \n                Cellular siRNA delivery using cell-penetrating peptides modified for endosomal escape \n                Adv Drug Deliv Rev  \n                2009; \n                61\n                : 704-9.","journal-title":"Adv. Drug. Deliv. Rev"},{"key":"refR52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2009.00057.x","volume":"157","author":"Heitz F","year":"2009","unstructured":"Heitz F, Morris CM, Divita G. \n                Twenty years of cell-penetrating peptides: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutics \n                Br J Pharmacol  \n                2009; \n                157\n                : 195-206.","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol"},{"key":"refR53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.03-0449fje","volume":"18","author":"Nekhotiaeva N","year":"2004","unstructured":"Nekhotiaeva N, Elmquist A, Rajarao KG, Hallbrink M, Langel U, Good L. \n                Cell entry and antimicrobial properties of eukaryotic cell-penetrating peptides \n                FASEB J  \n                2004; \n                18\n                : 394-6.","journal-title":"FASEB J"},{"key":"refR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3414","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01450-07","volume":"52","author":"Arrighi BR","year":"2008","unstructured":"Arrighi BR, Ebikeme C, Jiang Y, et al. \n                Cell-penetrating peptide TP10 shows broad-spectrum activity against both Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei brucei \n                Antimicrob Agents Chemother  \n                2008; \n                52\n                : 3414-7.","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother"},{"key":"refR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e4098","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0004098","volume":"3","author":"Prieto HJ","year":"2008","unstructured":"Prieto HJ, Koncarevic S, Park KS, Yates J3rd, Becker K. \n                Large-scale differential proteome analysis in Plasmodium falciparum under drug treatment \n                PLoS One  \n                2008; \n                3\n                : e4098.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"refR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2008.07.020","volume":"10","author":"Pays E","year":"2008","unstructured":"Pays E, Vanhollebeke B. \n                Mutual self-defence: the trypanolytic factor story \n                Microbes Infect  \n                2008; \n                10\n                : 985-.","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"refR57","first-page":"580","volume":"12","author":"Baral TN","year":"2006","unstructured":"Baral TN, Magez S, Stijlemans B, et al. \n                Experimental therapy of African trypanosomiasis with a nanobody-conjugated human trypanolytic factor \n                Med Sci  \n                2006; \n                12\n                : 580-4.","journal-title":"Med. Sci"},{"key":"refR58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2009.05.013","volume":"123","author":"El Fadili K","year":"2009","unstructured":"El Fadili K, Drummelsmith J, Roy G, Jardim A, Ouellette M. \n                Down regulation of KMP-11 in Leishmania infantum axenic antimony resistant amastigotes as revealed by a proteomic screen \n                Exp Parasitol  \n                2009; \n                123\n                : 51-7.","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol"},{"key":"refR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.12.2.197","volume":"12","author":"Kayser O","year":"2003","unstructured":"Kayser O, Kiderlen FA. \n                Delivery strategies for antiparasitics \n                Expert Opin Investig Drugs  \n                2003; \n                12\n                : 197-207.","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs"},{"key":"refR60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2007.05.013","volume":"30","author":"Ordonez-Gutierrez L","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ordonez-Gutierrez L, Espada-Fernandez R, Dea-Ayuela AM, Torrado JJ, Bolas-Fernandez F, Alunda MJ. \n                In vitro effect of new formulations of amphotericin B on amastigote and promastigote forms of Leishmania infantum \n                Int J Antimicrob Agents  \n                2007; \n                30\n                : 325-9.","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"refR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2405","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.21179","volume":"97","author":"Torrado JJ","year":"2008","unstructured":"Torrado JJ, Espada R, Ballesteros PM, Torrado-Santiago S. \n                Amphotericin B formulations and drug targeting \n                J Pharm Sci  \n                2008; \n                97\n                : 2405-5.","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci"},{"key":"refR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2009.11.024","volume":"62","author":"Santos-Magalhaes SN","year":"2010","unstructured":"Santos-Magalhaes SN, Mosqueira CV. \n                Nanotechnology applied to the treatment of malaria \n                Adv Drug Deliv Rev  \n                2010; \n                62\n                : 560-75.","journal-title":"Adv. Drug. Deliv. Rev"},{"key":"refR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.2174\/1566524043360186","volume":"4","author":"Basu KM","year":"2004","unstructured":"Basu KM, Lala S. \n                Macrophage specific drug delivery in experimental leishmaniasis \n                Curr Mol Med  \n                2004; \n                4\n                : 681-9.","journal-title":"Curr. Mol. Med"},{"key":"refR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1080\/10611860600649765","volume":"14","author":"Lala S","year":"2006","unstructured":"Lala S, Gupta S, Sahu NP, et al. \n                Critical evaluation of the therapeutic potential of basic acid incorporated in oil-in-water microemulsions and poly-D,L-lactide nanoparticles against experimental leishmaniasis \n                J Drug Target  \n                2006; \n                14\n                : 171-9.","journal-title":"J. Drug Target"},{"key":"refR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/1061186031000119101","volume":"11","author":"Medda S","year":"2003","unstructured":"Medda S, Jaisankar P, Manna RK, Pal B, Giri VS, Basu MK. \n                Phospholipid microspheres: a novel delivery mode for targeting antileishmanial agent in experimental leishmaniasis \n                J Drug Target  \n                2003; \n                11\n                : 123-8.","journal-title":"J. Drug Target"},{"key":"refR66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1080\/106118021000072681","volume":"10","author":"Sarkar S","year":"2002","unstructured":"Sarkar S, Mandal S, Sinha J, Mukhopadhyay S, Das N, Basu MK. \n                Quercetin: critical evaluation as an antileishmanial agent in vivo in hamsters using different vesicular delivery modes \n                J Drug Target  \n                2002; \n                10\n                : 573-8.","journal-title":"J. Drug Target"},{"key":"refR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/10611860500097107","volume":"13","author":"Sanchez-Brunete AJ","year":"2005","unstructured":"Sanchez-Brunete AJ, Dea AM, Rama S, et al. \n                Influence of the vehicle on the properties and efficacy of microparticles containing amphotericin B \n                J Drug Target  \n                2005; \n                13\n                : 225-33.","journal-title":"J. Drug Target"},{"key":"refR68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.1517\/17425240903304024","volume":"6","author":"Manzano M","year":"2009","unstructured":"Manzano M, Colilla M, Vallet-Regi M. \n                Drug delivery from ordered mesoporous matrices \n                Expert Opin Drug Deliv  \n                2009; \n                6\n                : 1383-400.","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv"},{"key":"refR69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2648","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.21638","volume":"98","author":"Van Speybroeck M","year":"2009","unstructured":"Van Speybroeck M, Barillaro V, Thi DT, et al. \n                Ordered mesoporous silica material SBA-15: a broad-spectrum formulation platform for poorly soluble drugs \n                J Pharm Sci  \n                2009; \n                98\n                : 2648-58.","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci"},{"key":"refR70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2007.11.006","volume":"69","author":"Mellaerts R","year":"2008","unstructured":"Mellaerts R, Mols R, Jammaer AJ, et al. \n                Increasing the oral bioavailability of the poorly water soluble drug itraconazole with ordered mesoporous silica \n                Eur J Pharm Biopharm  \n                2008; \n                69\n                : 223-30.","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm"},{"key":"refR71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2008.02.005","volume":"29","author":"Leroy D","year":"2008","unstructured":"Leroy D, Doerig C. \n                Drugging the Plasmodium kinome: the benefits of academia-industry synergy \n                Trends Pharmacol Sci  \n                2008; \n                29\n                : 241-9.","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci"},{"key":"refR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2008153522","volume":"15","author":"Croft LS","year":"2008","unstructured":"Croft LS. \n                Kinetoplastida: new therapeutic strategies \n                Parasite  \n                2008; \n                15\n                : 522-7.","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"refR73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.2174\/157488410790410560","volume":"5","author":"Wolf A","year":"2010","unstructured":"Wolf A, Shahid M, Kasam V, Ziegler W, Hofmann-Apitius M. \n                In Silico Drug Discovery Approaches on Grid Computing Infrastructures \n                Curr Clin Pharmacol  \n                2010; \n                5\n                : 37-46.","journal-title":"Curr. Clin. Pharmacol"},{"key":"refR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-8-88","volume":"8","author":"Kasam V","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kasam V, Salzemann J, Botha M, et al. \n                WISDOM-II: screening against multiple targets implicated in malaria using computational grid infrastructures \n                Malar J  \n                2009; \n                8\n                : 88.","journal-title":"Malar. J"},{"key":"refR75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8048","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2009.10.008","volume":"17","author":"Chavain N","year":"2009","unstructured":"Chavain N, Davioud-Charvet E, Trivelli X, et al. \n                Antimalarial activities of ferroquine conjugates with either glutathione reductase inhibitors or glutathione depletors via a hydrolyzable amide linker \n                Bioorg Med Chem  \n                2009; \n                17\n                : 8048-59.","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem"},{"key":"refR76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1002\/bdd.695","volume":"31","author":"Ribeiro RR","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ribeiro RR, Ferreira AW, Martins SP, et al. \n                Prolonged absorption of antimony(V) by the oral route from non-inclusion meglumine antimoniate-beta-cyclodextrin conjugates \n                Biopharm Drug Dispos  \n                2010; \n                31\n                : 109-19.","journal-title":"Biopharm. Drug Dispos"},{"key":"refR77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2564","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00223-08","volume":"52","author":"Ribeiro RR","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ribeiro RR, Moura PE, Pimentel MV, et al. \n                Reduced tissue parasitic load and infectivity to sand flies in dogs naturally infected by Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi following treatment with a liposome formulation of meglumine antimoniate \n                Antimicrob Agents Chemother  \n                2008; \n                52\n                : 2564-72.","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother"},{"key":"refR78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1639","DOI":"10.1021\/jm801313t","volume":"52","author":"Kraus MJ","year":"2009","unstructured":"Kraus MJ, Verlinde LC, Karimi M, Lepesheva IG, Gelb HM, Buckner SF. \n                Rational modification of a candidate cancer drug for use against Chagas disease \n                J Med Chem  \n                2009; \n                52\n                : 1639-47.","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem"},{"key":"refR79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e228","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0050228","volume":"5","author":"Sutherland JC","year":"2008","unstructured":"Sutherland JC. \n                Comparing highly efficacious antimalarial drugs \n                PLoS Med  \n                2008; \n                5\n                : e228.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"}],"container-title":["The Open Medicinal Chemistry Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/openmedicinalchemistryjournal.com\/contents\/volumes\/V05\/TOMCJ-5-4\/TOMCJ-5-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/openmedicinalchemistryjournal.com\/contents\/volumes\/V05\/TOMCJ-5-4\/TOMCJ-5-4.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/openmedicinalchemistryjournal.com\/contents\/volumes\/V05\/TOMCJ-5-4\/TOMCJ-5-4.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,24]],"date-time":"2025-10-24T11:51:54Z","timestamp":1761306714000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/openmedicinalchemistryjournal.com\/VOLUME\/05\/PAGE\/04\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,9]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,9]]}},"alternative-id":["TOMCJ-5-4"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2174\/1874104501105010004","relation":{},"ISSN":["1874-1045"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1874-1045","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Peer Reviewed","order":0,"name":"review_status","label":"Review Status","group":{"name":"peer_review_details","label":"Peer Review Details"}},{"value":"Double blind","order":1,"name":"review_process","label":"Review Process","group":{"name":"peer_review_details","label":"Peer Review Details"}},{"value":"Checked with iThenticate","order":0,"name":"screening_status","label":"Screening Status","group":{"name":"plagiarism_screening","label":"Plagiarism Screening"}},{"value":"2010-2-5","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2010-5-25","order":1,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2010-6-20","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2011-03-09","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}