{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T20:24:36Z","timestamp":1792268676453,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMIR Ment Health"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec sec-type=\"background\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used in mental health, showing promise in assessing disorders. However, concerns exist regarding their accuracy, reliability, and fairness. Societal biases and underrepresentation of certain populations may impact LLMs. Because LLMs are already used for clinical practice, including decision support, it is important to investigate potential biases to ensure a responsible use of LLMs. Anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) show a lifetime prevalence of 1%\u20102%, affecting more women than men. Among men, homosexual men face a higher risk of eating disorders (EDs) than heterosexual men. However, men are underrepresented in ED research, and studies on gender, sexual orientation, and their impact on AN and BN prevalence, symptoms, and treatment outcomes remain limited.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec sec-type=\"objectives\">\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We aimed to estimate the presence and size of bias related to gender and sexual orientation produced by a common LLM as well as a smaller LLM specifically trained for mental health analyses, exemplified in the context of ED symptomatology and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of patients with AN or BN.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec sec-type=\"methods\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We extracted 30 case vignettes (22 AN and 8 BN) from scientific papers. We adapted each vignette to create 4 versions, describing a female versus male patient living with their female versus male partner (2 \u00d7 2 design), yielding 120 vignettes. We then fed each vignette into ChatGPT-4 and to \u201cMentaLLaMA\u201d based on the Large Language Model Meta AI (LLaMA) architecture thrice with the instruction to evaluate them by providing responses to 2 psychometric instruments, the RAND-36 questionnaire assessing HRQoL and the eating disorder examination questionnaire. With the resulting LLM-generated scores, we calculated multilevel models with a random intercept for gender and sexual orientation (accounting for within-vignette variance), nested in vignettes (accounting for between-vignette variance).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec sec-type=\"results\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In ChatGPT-4, the multilevel model with 360 observations indicated a significant association with gender for the RAND-36 mental composite summary (conditional means: 12.8 for male and 15.1 for female cases; 95% CI of the effect \u20136.15 to \u22120.35;\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      =.04) but neither with sexual orientation (\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      =.71) nor with an interaction effect (\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      =.37). We found no indications for main effects of gender (conditional means: 5.65 for male and 5.61 for female cases; 95% CI \u20130.10 to 0.14;\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      =.88), sexual orientation (conditional means: 5.63 for heterosexual and 5.62 for homosexual cases; 95% CI \u20130.14 to 0.09;\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      =.67), or for an interaction effect (\n                      <jats:italic>P<\/jats:italic>\n                      =.61, 95% CI \u20130.11 to 0.19) for the eating disorder examination questionnaire overall score (conditional means 5.59\u20105.65 95% CIs 5.45 to 5.7). MentaLLaMA did not yield reliable results.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec sec-type=\"conclusions\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>LLM-generated mental HRQoL estimates for AN and BN case vignettes may be biased by gender, with male cases scoring lower despite no real-world evidence supporting this pattern. This highlights the risk of bias in generative artificial intelligence in the field of mental health. Understanding and mitigating biases related to gender and other factors, such as ethnicity, and socioeconomic status are crucial for responsible use in diagnostics and treatment recommendations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2196\/57986","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,24]],"date-time":"2024-11-24T11:10:09Z","timestamp":1732446609000},"page":"e57986-e57986","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Exploring Biases of Large Language Models in the Field of Mental Health: Comparative Questionnaire Study of the Effect of Gender and Sexual Orientation in Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa Case Vignettes"],"prefix":"10.2196","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5415-5943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebekka","family":"Schnepper","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7118-7720","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noa","family":"Roemmel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3077-7289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rainer","family":"Schaefert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4517-5205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lena","family":"Lambrecht-Walzinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3488-193X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gunther","family":"Meinlschmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1010","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-023-00241-5","article-title":"Using large language models in psychology","volume":"2","author":"Demszky","journal-title":"Nat Rev Psychol"},{"key":"R2","unstructured":"OpenAiAchiam J Adler S et al. 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