{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T18:57:53Z","timestamp":1782845873147,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMIR Form Res"],"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Background<\/jats:title>\n Virtual reality (VR) headsets are increasingly used in health care settings for a variety of clinical indications, yet processes to ensure safe use between patients are not well-established. Centers vary in how these processes are performed. Most use disinfection wipes that require manual contact with VR devices for a specified dwell time to allow for sufficient pathogen killing, which may introduce manual error and device degradation over time. Ultraviolet-C light (UV-C) devices offer a no-touch, low-cost, and passive method to achieve pathogen killing without the harms of chemical contact-based disinfectants. The use of UV-C for disinfection has been studied for some medical devices but its efficacy for microbe killing on VR headsets is not well-established.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Objective<\/jats:title>\n This study aims to determine the bactericidal efficacy of UV-C on VR headsets through quantifying UV-C irradiance and bacterial killing of 3 commercially available UV-C devices.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n \n Three commercially available, low-cost UV-C devices were tested for UV-C energy output at multiple positions, angles, and times across the devices\u2019 zone of disinfection. The top and lens of a VR headset, the Meta Oculus Quest 2, were artificially inoculated with high quantities of 3 different strains of bacteria (\n Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa<\/jats:italic>\n , and\n Staphylococcus epidermidis<\/jats:italic>\n ) and subjected to UV-C light according to each device\u2019s manufacturer\u2019s instructions for use. The primary outcome was the amount of bacterial killing after exposure to UV-C light.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n All 3 UV-C devices produced a UV-C dose that ranged from 3.57 to 195.37 mJ\/cm\n 2<\/jats:sup>\n , depending on proximity, angle, irradiance, and time the sensor received. At least 3-log\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n killing of all 3 strains of bacteria was achieved for each of the tested UV-C devices; however, there was variability by organism with respect to UV-C device and VR headset location within the device, notably with the proximity of the bacteria to the bulb.\n S aureus<\/jats:italic>\n and\n P aeruginosa<\/jats:italic>\n were more readily killed than\n S epidermidis<\/jats:italic>\n , with increased bacterial killing occurring with increased UV-C exposure doses. There was no experiment in which all bacteria were killed.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n UV-C dosage increased with exposure irradiance, time, proximity, and angle to the bulb for all 3 UV-C devices. Bacterial killing on the top and lens of a VR headset occurred in all 3 UV-C devices when run according to their manufacturer\u2019s instructions for use, although full bacterial killing did not occur in any experiment. UV-C may be an effective method for microbial killing on VR equipment with low-level contamination.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2196\/70326","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T21:22:52Z","timestamp":1759267372000},"page":"e70326-e70326","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Bactericidal Efficacy of Ultraviolet-C Light on Virtual Reality Devices: In Vitro Assessment of Bacterial Killing"],"prefix":"10.2196","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7348-6716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Scott C","family":"Roberts","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9794-4050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jayson","family":"Wright","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4558-4707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mahnoor","family":"Mustafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4158-7640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard S","family":"Feinn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9913-9912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asher","family":"Marks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9276-7767","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kimberly","family":"Hieftje","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8435-5414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pamela H","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0355-9200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard A","family":"Martinello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6829-7213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas S","family":"Murray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"HIPSTER Team","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1010","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"R1","unstructured":"Executive summary for the patient engagement advisory committee meeting: augmented reality and virtual reality medical devices. US Food and Drug Administration. 2022. URL: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/advisory-committees\/advisory-committee-calendar\/july-12-13-2022-patient-engagement-advisory-committee-meeting-announcement-07122022 [Accessed 09-09-2025]"},{"issue":"14","key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1714373","article-title":"A Candida auris outbreak and its control in an intensive care setting","volume":"379","author":"Eyre","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/42332","article-title":"Disinfection of virtual reality devices in health care settings: in vitro assessment and survey study","volume":"24","author":"Roberts","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"key":"R4","unstructured":"Clean your Meta Quest products. Meta. URL: https:\/\/www.meta.com\/help\/quest\/articles\/headsets-and-accessories\/product-care-and-best-practices\/clean-your-meta-quest\/ [Accessed 15-02-2024]"},{"issue":"9","key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2019.161","article-title":"Understanding ultraviolet light surface decontamination in hospital rooms: a primer","volume":"40","author":"Boyce","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30278-0","article-title":"Effectiveness of targeted enhanced terminal room disinfection on hospital-wide acquisition and infection with multidrug-resistant organisms and Clostridium difficile: a secondary analysis of a multicentre cluster randomised controlled trial with crossover design (BETR Disinfection)","volume":"18","author":"Anderson","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"5","key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1111\/myc.12903","article-title":"Killing of Candida auris by UV-C: importance of exposure time and distance","volume":"62","author":"de Groot","journal-title":"Mycoses"},{"issue":"2","key":"R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11020226","article-title":"Illuminating human norovirus: a perspective on disinfection of water and surfaces using UVC, norovirus model organisms, and radiation safety considerations","volume":"11","author":"Mariita","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"issue":"3","key":"R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.3390\/microbiolres15030080","article-title":"Predictive modeling of UV-C inactivation of microorganisms in glass, titanium, and polyether ether ketone","volume":"15","author":"Chroudi","journal-title":"Microbiol Res (Pavia)"},{"issue":"10","key":"R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1086\/656244","article-title":"Room decontamination with UV radiation","volume":"31","author":"Rutala","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1086\/677149","article-title":"Room decontamination using an ultraviolet-C device with short ultraviolet exposure time","volume":"35","author":"Rutala","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"key":"R12","unstructured":"Avoid sunlight damage with your Meta Quest headset. Meta. URL: https:\/\/www.meta.com\/help\/quest\/articles\/headsets-and-accessories\/product-care-and-best-practices\/avoiding-sunlight-damage [Accessed 10-10-2024]"},{"key":"R13","unstructured":"\u00a7 880.6600 ultraviolet (UV) radiation chamber disinfection device. Code of Federal Regulations. URL: https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-21\/chapter-I\/subchapter-H\/part-880\/subpart-G\/section-880.6600 [Accessed 14-05-2025]"},{"key":"R14","unstructured":"Zelle MR Hollaender A . Effects of radiation on bacteria. In: Radiation Biology. McGraw-Hill; 1955:365-430. URL: https:\/\/catalog.nlm.nih.gov\/permalink\/01NLM_INST\/1o1phhn\/alma993532953406676 [Accessed 09-09-2025]"},{"issue":"2","key":"R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.60.2.179","article-title":"Results of irradiating Staphylococcus aureus bacteriophage with monochromatic ultraviolet light","volume":"60","author":"Gates","journal-title":"J Exp Med"},{"key":"R16","unstructured":"Rutala WA Weber DJ , The Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). Guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2008. URL: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/infection-control\/hcp\/disinfection-and-sterilization\/index.html [Accessed 10-12-2024]"},{"issue":"1","key":"R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-40996-8","article-title":"Ecology and resistance to UV light and antibiotics of microbial communities on UV cabins in the dermatology service of a Spanish hospital","volume":"13","author":"Molina-Menor","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"7","key":"R18","first-page":"46","volume":"57","author":"Rao","journal-title":"Ostomy Wound Manage"},{"issue":"453","key":"R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00453","article-title":"Novel genes involved in resistance to both ultraviolet radiation and perchlorate from the metagenomes of hypersaline environments","volume":"11","author":"Lamprecht-Grand\u00edo","journal-title":"Front Microbiol"},{"issue":"4","key":"R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0250455","article-title":"A quasi-experimental study on stethoscopes contamination with multidrug-resistant bacteria: its role as a vehicle of transmission","volume":"16","author":"Lee","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"3","key":"R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2013.11.016","article-title":"Contamination of stethoscopes and physicians\u2019 hands after a physical examination","volume":"89","author":"Longtin","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"issue":"10","key":"R22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2015.06.019","article-title":"A new UV-LED device for automatic disinfection of stethoscope membranes","volume":"43","author":"Messina","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"issue":"1","key":"R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243554","article-title":"Quantitative UV-C dose validation with photochromic indicators for informed N95 emergency decontamination","volume":"16","author":"Su","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"5","key":"R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1093\/annweh\/wxaa147","article-title":"Surface dosimetry of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation using a colorimetric technique","volume":"65","author":"Neu","journal-title":"Ann Work Expo Health"}],"container-title":["JMIR Formative Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/formative.jmir.org\/2025\/1\/e70326","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T17:58:57Z","timestamp":1782842337000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/formative.jmir.org\/2025\/1\/e70326"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"references-count":24,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/70326","relation":{},"ISSN":["2561-326X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2561-326X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"article-number":"v9i14e70326"}}