{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T19:01:08Z","timestamp":1782846068880,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Med Internet Res"],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n During the COVID-19 pandemic, the continuous spread of misinformation on the internet posed an ongoing threat to public trust and understanding of epidemic prevention policies. Although the pandemic is now under control, information regarding the risks of long-term COVID-19 effects and reinfection still needs to be integrated into COVID-19 policies.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Objective<\/jats:title>\n This study aims to develop a robust and generalizable deep learning framework for detecting misinformation related to the prolonged impacts of COVID-19 by integrating pretrained language models (PLMs) with an innovative fuzzy rank-based ensemble approach.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n A comprehensive dataset comprising 566 genuine and 2361 fake samples was curated from reliable open sources and processed using advanced techniques. The dataset was randomly split using the scikit-learn package to facilitate both training and evaluation. Deep learning models were trained for 20 epochs on a Tesla T4 for hierarchical attention networks (HANs) and an RTX A5000 (for the other models). To enhance performance, we implemented an ensemble learning strategy that incorporated a reparameterized Gompertz function, which assigned fuzzy ranks based on each model\u2019s prediction confidence for each test case. This method effectively fused outputs from state-of-the-art PLMs such as robustly optimized bidirectional encoder representations from transformers pretraining approach (RoBERTa), decoding-enhanced bidirectional encoder representations from transformers with disentangled attention (DeBERTa), and XLNet.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n After training on the dataset, various classification methods were evaluated on the test set, including the fuzzy rank-based method and state-of-the-art large language models. Experimental results reveal that language models, particularly XLNet, outperform traditional approaches that combine term frequency\u2013inverse document frequency features with support vector machine or utilize deep models like HAN. The evaluation metrics\u2014including accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, and area under the curve (AUC)\u2014indicated a clear performance advantage for models that had a larger number of parameters. However, this study also highlights that model architecture, training procedures, and optimization techniques are critical determinants of classification effectiveness. XLNet\u2019s permutation language modeling approach enhances bidirectional context understanding, allowing it to surpass even larger models in the bidirectional encoder representations from transformers (BERT) series despite having relatively fewer parameters. Notably, the fuzzy rank-based ensemble method, which combines multiple language models, achieved impressive results on the test set, with an accuracy of 93.52%, a precision of 94.65%, an F1-score of 96.03%, and an AUC of 97.15%.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n The fusion of ensemble learning with PLMs and the Gompertz function, employing fuzzy rank-based methodology, introduces a novel prediction approach with prospects for enhancing accuracy and reliability. Additionally, the experimental results imply that training solely on textual content can yield high prediction accuracy, thereby providing valuable insights into the optimization of fake news detection systems. These findings not only aid in detecting misinformation but also have broader implications for the application of advanced deep learning techniques in public health policy and communication.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2196\/73601","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T11:45:27Z","timestamp":1747827927000},"page":"e73601","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Identifying Disinformation on the Extended Impacts of COVID-19: Methodological Investigation Using a Fuzzy Ranking Ensemble of Natural Language Processing 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