{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T04:54:54Z","timestamp":1793076894392,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Med Internet Res"],"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Background<\/jats:title>\n The link between social media use and depressive symptoms remains bidirectional. Findings in this area are often compromised by methodological limitations related to measurement and sample size. As a result, it is challenging to assess dose-response relationships and potential causal pathways.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Objective<\/jats:title>\n This study aims to use objective measurement methods to assess the dose-response relationship and potential mechanisms between social media use and depressive symptoms.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n This study was conducted in 6 universities in 2022. Social media use duration was assessed based on the monitoring of mobile phone systems, and depressive symptoms were evaluated by the Self-Rating Depression Scale. Logistic regression and restricted cubic spline were used to assess the relationship between social media use and depressive symptoms. Mediation analysis was used to elucidate the biological pathways of sleep quality in the abovementioned relationship.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n A total of 7401 college students were included in the final analysis, with 4.93% of moderate to severe depressive symptoms. After adjusting for variables such as sociodemographic characteristics and health-related characteristics, there was a significant association between individuals with longer weekly social media use time and depressive symptoms (odds ratio [OR\n >48h<\/jats:sub>\n ] 1.769, 95% CI 1.303\u20102.400). Similarly, the association between instant messaging-based social media use duration and depressive symptoms was also significant (OR\n >24h<\/jats:sub>\n 1.728, 95% CI 1.225\u20102.437), while no associations were observed for content-based social use (OR\n >24h<\/jats:sub>\n 1.251, 95% CI 0.932\u20101.680). Restricted cubic splines regression demonstrated a J-type relationship between social media use duration and depressive symptoms. Additionally, sleep quality played a partial mediating role in the relationship between social media use duration and depressive symptoms, with the mediating effect values ranging from 24.10% to 25.25%.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n Prolonged social media use duration might be associated with an increased prevalence of depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood and may increase the odds of depression by affecting sleep quality, suggesting that early prevention and intervention regarding social media use might help to ameliorate depressive symptoms.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2196\/75337","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T21:45:52Z","timestamp":1766180752000},"page":"e75337-e75337","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Time Spent on Social Media Applications in Relation to Depressive Symptoms During Emerging Adulthood and the Mediating Role of Sleep Quality: Cross-Sectional Observational Study"],"prefix":"10.2196","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5450-3631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qi","family":"Zou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9360-4991","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiabi","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9916-9348","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-2934-493X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenhua","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6756-4320","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoxiao","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6440-4827","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tingting","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1406-6158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuan","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6584-203X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ye","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8870-4530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linfei","family":"Dou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-3665-3402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinghua","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9416-3591","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xirennayi","family":"Abudurexiti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3001-1897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mingyang","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1010","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.5.469","article-title":"Emerging adulthood. A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties","volume":"55","author":"Arnett","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"issue":"918","key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2019.00918","article-title":"Emerging adulthood, a pre-adult life-history stage","volume":"10","author":"Hochberg","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol"},{"issue":"7","key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(14)00080-7","article-title":"The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18-29 years: implications for mental health","volume":"1","author":"Arnett","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1238105","article-title":"Well-being, character strengths, and depression in emerging adults","volume":"14","author":"Brito","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.34866","article-title":"Prevalence of depression and anxiety among Qassim University students during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"15","author":"Alsoghair","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"issue":"1","key":"R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72998-1","article-title":"Prevalence of depression among Chinese university students: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Gao","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"3","key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2012.11.015","article-title":"A systematic review of studies of depression prevalence in university students","volume":"47","author":"Ibrahim","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/20185","article-title":"Mental health and behavior of college students during the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic: longitudinal smartphone and ecological momentary assessment study","volume":"22","author":"Huckins","journal-title":"J Med Internet Res"},{"issue":"2","key":"R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1080\/07448481.2022.2040515","article-title":"Mental health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on college students","volume":"72","author":"Wood","journal-title":"J Am Coll Health"},{"key":"R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2021.113863","article-title":"The prevalence of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and sleep disturbance in higher education students during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"301","author":"Deng","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1080\/03637751.2011.618142","article-title":"The social dimension of blogging about health: health blogging, social support, and well-being","volume":"78","author":"Rains","journal-title":"Commun Monogr"},{"key":"R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2018.01.012","article-title":"Online social media fatigue and psychological wellbeing\u2014a study of compulsive use, fear of missing out, fatigue, anxiety and depression","volume":"40","author":"Dhir","journal-title":"Int J Inf Manage"},{"issue":"12","key":"R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1266","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2019.2325","article-title":"Associations between time spent using social media and internalizing and externalizing problems among US youth","volume":"76","author":"Riehm","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"issue":"6","key":"R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1111\/ajad.13574","article-title":"Time spent on social media and depressive symptoms in university students: the mediating role of psychoactive substances","volume":"33","author":"Sirtoli","journal-title":"Am J Addict"},{"issue":"2","key":"R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtumed.2020.11.004","article-title":"Higher emotional investment in social media is related to anxiety and depression in university students","volume":"16","author":"Alsunni","journal-title":"J Taibah Univ Med Sci"},{"key":"R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2018.12.012","article-title":"Social comparisons on Facebook and offline: the relationship to depressive symptoms","volume":"141","author":"Faranda","journal-title":"Pers Individ Dif"},{"issue":"1","key":"R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.4103\/shb.shb_81_20","article-title":"The effects of internet gaming and social media use on physical activity, sleep, quality of life, and academic performance among university students in Hong Kong","volume":"4","author":"Kwok","journal-title":"Asian J Soc Health Behav"},{"issue":"1","key":"R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-018-0088-y","article-title":"Rhythms of life: circadian disruption and brain disorders across the lifespan","volume":"20","author":"Logan","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurosci"},{"issue":"4","key":"R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.120","article-title":"HPA axis in major depression: cortisol, clinical symptomatology and genetic variation predict cognition","volume":"22","author":"Keller","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"issue":"20","key":"R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1659","DOI":"10.1002\/bdr2.1171","article-title":"Melatonin, adolescence, and the brain: an insight into the period-specific influences of a multifunctional signaling molecule","volume":"109","author":"Onaolapo","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res"},{"key":"R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2024.11.007","article-title":"Interaction among negative mood, sleep, and diet habits in adolescents with non-suicidal self-injury: a cross-sectional network analysis","volume":"370","author":"Liu","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"6","key":"R22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2024.01.030","article-title":"Insufficient sleep is associated with increasing trends in adolescent suicidal behaviors","volume":"74","author":"Wang","journal-title":"J Adolesc Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4713-2","article-title":"A cross-sectional survey on sleep quality, mental health, and academic performance among medical students in Saudi Arabia","volume":"12","author":"Al-Khani","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes"},{"key":"R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2018.12.005","article-title":"Social media use and adolescent mental health: findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study","volume":"6","author":"Kelly","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"R25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2019.01.029","article-title":"Sleep mediates the association between adolescent screen time and depressive symptoms","volume":"57","author":"Li","journal-title":"Sleep Med"},{"key":"R26","unstructured":"Thompson A . Digital 2025: the essential guide to the global state of digital. We are Social; 2025. URL: https:\/\/wearesocial.com\/cn\/blog\/2025\/02\/digital-2025-the-essential-guide-to-the-global-state-of-digital\/ [Accessed 05-02-2025]"},{"key":"R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1965.01720310065008","article-title":"A Self-Rating Depression Scale","volume":"12","author":"Zung","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"issue":"10","key":"R28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.37011","article-title":"Depressive symptoms and mortality among US adults","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"issue":"2","key":"R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(89)90047-4","article-title":"The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research","volume":"28","author":"Buysse","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"R30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pbc.28988","article-title":"Short sleep duration and physical and psychological health outcomes among adult survivors of childhood cancer","volume":"68","author":"Lubas","journal-title":"Pediatr Blood Cancer"},{"issue":"5-6","key":"R31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e694","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usz423","article-title":"A cross-sectional examination of the association between social media use and sleep among a sample of U.S. Army Soldiers","volume":"185","author":"Hill","journal-title":"Mil Med"},{"issue":"8","key":"R32","first-page":"961","volume":"35","author":"Fan","journal-title":"Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"R33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S447372","article-title":"The impact of mobile social media use on depressive mood among college students: a chain mediating effect of upward social comparison and cognitive overload","volume":"17","author":"Yan","journal-title":"Psychol Res Behav Manag"},{"issue":"4","key":"R34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22466","article-title":"Assocation between social media use and depression among U. S. young adults","volume":"33","author":"Lin","journal-title":"Depress Anxiety"},{"key":"R35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.05.106","article-title":"Is social media screen time really associated with poor adolescent mental health? A time use diary study","volume":"274","author":"Barthorpe","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"1","key":"R36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-024-03142-0","article-title":"Association between social media use and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older Chinese adults","volume":"14","author":"Qi","journal-title":"Transl Psychiatry"},{"issue":"10","key":"R37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-023-02486-9","article-title":"Associations between older adults\u2019 social media use behaviors and psychosocial well-being","volume":"35","author":"Ho","journal-title":"Aging Clin Exp Res"},{"issue":"1","key":"R38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/02673843.2019.1590851","article-title":"A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents","volume":"25","author":"Keles","journal-title":"Int J Adolesc Youth"},{"issue":"2","key":"R39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2020.09.014","article-title":"Temporal associations between social media use and depression","volume":"60","author":"Primack","journal-title":"Am J Prev Med"},{"key":"R40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.892583","article-title":"The associations of electronic media use with sleep and circadian problems, social, emotional and behavioral difficulties in adolescents","volume":"13","author":"Li","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"issue":"4","key":"R41","first-page":"395","volume":"58","author":"Shrivastava","journal-title":"Indian J Physiol Pharmacol"},{"issue":"3","key":"R42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01413.2009","article-title":"Blue light from light-emitting diodes elicits a dose-dependent suppression of melatonin in humans","volume":"110","author":"West","journal-title":"J Appl Physiol"},{"issue":"3","key":"R43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-024-01481-9","article-title":"The impact of social media use on sleep and mental health in youth: a scoping review","volume":"26","author":"Yu","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"issue":"4","key":"R44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleh.2023.02.005","article-title":"Bedtime screen use behaviors and sleep outcomes: fndings from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study","volume":"9","author":"Nagata","journal-title":"Sleep Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"R45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21242","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-72159-8","article-title":"Depressive symptoms mediate the longitudinal relationships between sleep quality and cognitive functions among older adults with mild cognitive impairment: a cross-lagged modeling analysis","volume":"14","author":"Wang","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"9","key":"R46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3042","article-title":"Reciprocal regulation of the neural and innate immune systems","volume":"11","author":"Irwin","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"issue":"3","key":"R47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291708003723","article-title":"Associations of c-reactive protein and interleukin-6 with cognitive symptoms of depression: 12-year follow-up of the Whitehall II study","volume":"39","author":"Gimeno","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"R48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-0839-4","article-title":"Underestimating digital media harm","volume":"4","author":"Twenge","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"}],"container-title":["Journal of Medical Internet Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.jmir.org\/2025\/1\/e75337","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T18:06:20Z","timestamp":1782842780000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.jmir.org\/2025\/1\/e75337"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"references-count":48,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/75337","relation":{},"ISSN":["1438-8871"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1438-8871","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]]},"article-number":"v27i5e75337"}}