{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T17:48:09Z","timestamp":1782841689901,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMIR Med Educ"],"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Background<\/jats:title>\n Three-dimensional modalities are increasingly being used as adjuncts for medical trainees learning about complex anatomical concepts, such as congenital heart disease.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Objective<\/jats:title>\n This study aimed to evaluate the use of 2 such modalities, 3D-printed models, and augmented reality (AR), in improving medical students\u2019 understanding and knowledge retention of congenital heart disease when compared to traditional teaching methods.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n A prospective cohort pilot study was performed with 26 first-year medical students. Students were randomly assigned to receive a 30-minute teaching session using traditional slide-based lecture, 3D-printed model, or AR. Participants completed a 16-question pretest consisting of 4 basic general cardiology questions and 6 questions each regarding the anatomy and physiology of tetralogy of Fallot and hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Participants completed a posttest immediately following the teaching session, as well as a delayed posttest 3 weeks later.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n When comparing overall and subsection posttest scores, the AR group obtained perfect immediate posttest scores at a significantly increased rate compared to the lecture and 3D model groups (6\/9, 67% vs 1\/8, 13% and 1\/9, 11%, respectively; large effect size Cram\u00e9r V=0.57;\n P<\/jats:italic>\n =.02). Participants in the lecture group reported difficulty understanding cardiac anatomy and physiology using only 2D diagrams, whereas those in the 3D-printed model and AR groups almost unanimously reported improved visualization of complex cardiac defects, which enhanced their understanding.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n Due to the visuospatial benefits of 3D-printed models and AR, there is potential for use in medical education to improve students\u2019 knowledge of complex anatomical and physiological concepts. Students who received teaching using 3D-printed models or AR overwhelmingly reported improved 3D visualization of congenital cardiac defects compared to those who were taught via lecture. Additionally, AR and 3D-printed models offer practical opportunities for implementation into medical education curricula as both adjunct and stand-alone teaching modalities.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2196\/85967","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T15:40:06Z","timestamp":1767022806000},"page":"e85967-e85967","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Use of 3D-Printed Models and Augmented Reality in Medical Student Education of Congenital Heart Disease: Randomized Controlled Trial"],"prefix":"10.2196","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8910-7823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tyler","family":"Langenfeld","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9414-7715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriel N","family":"Bahrami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8056-0862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yea-Lyn","family":"Pak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6353-5374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susanne","family":"Wish-Baratz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4562-6456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuxi","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0153-4173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arpit","family":"Agarwal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1010","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-025-10002-w","article-title":"Learning styles, preferences, or strategies? An explanation for the resurgence of styles across many meta-analyses","volume":"37","author":"Hattie","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"4","key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1037\/hop0000240","article-title":"The long origins of the visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning style typology, 1921-2001","volume":"26","author":"Fallace","journal-title":"Hist Psychol"},{"key":"R3","unstructured":"Schaffhauser D Rhea K . 55 percent of faculty are flipping the classroom. Campus Technology. URL: https:\/\/campustechnology.com\/articles\/2016\/10\/12\/55-percent-of-faculty-are-flipping-the-classroom.aspx [Accessed 24-07-2025]"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2022.956416","article-title":"Fail, flip, fix, and feed \u2013 rethinking flipped learning: a review of meta-analyses and a subsequent meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Kapur","journal-title":"Front Educ"},{"issue":"2","key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2023.10.021","article-title":"The changing landscape of the Preclinical Medical School curriculum: results from a nationwide survey of United States medical school curriculum deans","volume":"137","author":"Verma","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"issue":"12","key":"R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1111\/medu.70022","article-title":"Visual-spatial abilities enhancement and spatial anatomy learning: a systematic review","volume":"59","author":"Nokovitch","journal-title":"Med Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.3200\/CTCH.55.3.121-124","article-title":"Computer slide shows: a trap for bad teaching","volume":"55","author":"Klemm","journal-title":"College Teaching"},{"key":"R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.760363","article-title":"Role of three-dimensional visualization modalities in medical education","volume":"9","author":"Bui","journal-title":"Front Pediatr"},{"key":"R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.134974","article-title":"Full-immersion virtual reality: adverse effects related to static balance","volume":"733","author":"Park","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"issue":"6","key":"R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1111\/chd.12673","article-title":"Utility of three-dimensional models in resident education on simple and complex intracardiac congenital heart defects","volume":"13","author":"White","journal-title":"Congenit Heart Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1007\/s00246-019-02146-8","article-title":"Utility of 3D printed cardiac models for medical student education in congenital heart disease: across a spectrum of disease severity","volume":"40","author":"Smerling","journal-title":"Pediatr Cardiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-021-02917-z","article-title":"The usefulness of 3D printed heart models for medical student education in congenital heart disease","volume":"21","author":"Karsenty","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-017-0889-0","article-title":"Usage of 3D models of tetralogy of Fallot for medical education: impact on learning congenital heart disease","volume":"17","author":"Loke","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ"},{"issue":"5","key":"R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.5858\/arpa.2017-0189-OA","article-title":"Augmented reality technology using Microsoft HoloLens in anatomic pathology","volume":"142","author":"Hanna","journal-title":"Arch Pathol Lab Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.23292","article-title":"Virtual reality and cardiac anatomy: exploring immersive three-dimensional cardiac imaging, a pilot study in undergraduate medical anatomy education","volume":"32","author":"Maresky","journal-title":"Clin Anat"},{"issue":"6","key":"R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.1696","article-title":"The effectiveness of virtual and augmented reality in health sciences and medical anatomy","volume":"10","author":"Moro","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2049","article-title":"Virtual and augmented reality enhancements to medical and science student physiology and anatomy test performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"14","author":"Moro","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.2399\/ana.21.857788","article-title":"The contribution of plastinates to teaching complex anatomy of the heart","volume":"15","author":"Ayta\u00e7","journal-title":"Anatomy"},{"issue":"1","key":"R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12909-025-07050-9","article-title":"Comprehensive evaluation of the educational impact and effectiveness of specialized study modules in cross-sectional anatomy: a study on student engagement and learning outcomes","volume":"25","author":"Ogut","journal-title":"BMC Med Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11701-025-02961-7","article-title":"From visualization to education: the role of 3D-printed and virtual kidney models in training for renal cancer surgery, a systematic review","volume":"20","author":"Rubat Baleuri","journal-title":"J Robot Surg"}],"container-title":["JMIR Medical Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/mededu.jmir.org\/2026\/1\/e85967","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T17:14:03Z","timestamp":1782839643000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/mededu.jmir.org\/2026\/1\/e85967"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]]},"references-count":20,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/85967","relation":{},"ISSN":["2369-3762"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2369-3762","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]]},"article-number":"v12i2e85967"}}